Tiles are usually thin, square or rectangular coverings manufactured from hard-wearing material such asceramic,stone, metal, baked clay, or evenglass. They are generally fixed in place in an array to cover roofs, floors, walls, edges, or other objects such as tabletops. Alternatively, tile can sometimes refer to similar units made from lightweight materials such asperlite,wood, andmineral wool, typically used for wall and ceiling applications. In another sense, a tile is a construction tile or similar object, such as rectangular counters used in playing games (seetile-based game). The word is derived from theFrench wordtuile, which is, in turn, from theLatin wordtegula, meaning a roof tile composed of fired clay.
Tiles are often used to form wall and floor coverings, and can range from simple square tiles to complex ormosaics. Tiles are most often made ofceramic, typicallyglazed for internal uses and unglazed for roofing, but other materials are also commonly used, such as glass, cork,concrete and other composite materials, and stone. Tiling stone is typically marble, onyx, granite or slate. Thinner tiles can be used on walls than on floors, which require more durable surfaces that will resist impacts.
Global production of ceramic tiles, excluding roof tiles, was estimated to be 12.7billion m2 in 2019.[1]
Decorative tilework ortile art should be distinguished frommosaic, where forms are made of great numbers of tiny irregularly positionedtesserae, each of a single color, usually of glass or sometimes ceramic or stone. There are various tile patterns, such asherringbone, staggered, offset, grid, stacked, pinwheel,parquet de Versailles, basket weave, tiles Art, diagonal, chevron, andencaustic which can range in size, shape, thickness, and color.[2]
There are several other types of traditional tiles that remain in manufacture, for example the small, almost mosaic, brightly coloredzellij tiles ofMorocco and the surrounding countries.
The use of sun-dried bricks or adobe was the main method of building inMesopotamia where river mud was found in abundance along theTigris andEuphrates. Here the scarcity of stone may have been an incentive to develop the technology of making kiln-fired bricks to use as an alternative. To strengthen walls made from sun-dried bricks, fired bricks began to be used as an outer protective skin for more important buildings like temples, palaces, city walls, and gates. Making fired bricks is an advanced pottery technique. Fired bricks are solid masses ofclay heated in kilns to temperatures of between 950° and 1,150°C, and a well-made fired brick is an extremely durable object. Like sun-dried bricks, they were made in wooden molds but for bricks with relief decorations, special molds had to be made.
Rooms with tiled floors made of clay decorated with geometric circular patterns have been discovered from the ancient remains ofKalibangan,Balakot and Ahladino.[3][4]
Tiling was used in the second century by theSinhalese kings of ancientSri Lanka, using smoothed and polished stone laid on floors and in swimming pools. The techniques and tools for tiling is advanced, evidenced by the fine workmanship and close fit of the tiles. Such tiling can be seen inRuwanwelisaya andKuttam Pokuna in the city ofAnuradhapura. The nine-storiedLovamahapaya (3rd century BC) had copper roof tiles.[5] The roofs were tiled, with red, white, yellow, turquoise and brown tiles. There were also tiles made ofbronze. Sigiriya also had an elaborate gatehouse made of timber and brick masonry with multiple tiled roofs. The massive timber doorposts remaining today indicate this.
TheAchaemenid Empire decorated buildings with glazed brick tiles, includingDarius the Great's palace atSusa, and buildings at Persepolis.[6] The succeedingSassanid Empire used tiles patterned with geometric designs, flowers, plants, birds and human beings, glazed up to a centimeter thick.[6]
Early Islamic mosaics inIran consisted mainly ofgeometric decorations inmosques andmausoleums, made of glazed brick. Distinctive turquoise tiling became popular in the 10th-11th century and was used mostly forKufic inscriptions on mosque walls.Seyyed Mosque inIsfahan (AD 1122), Dome of Maraqeh (AD 1147) and the Jame Mosque of Gonabad (1212 AD) are among the finest examples.[6] The dome ofJame' Atiq Mosque of Qazvin is also dated to this period.
Beginning in the 11th and 12th centuries, an important technique in making patterns emerged in the form ofgirih tiling, which used intersectinggirih straps to create complex patterns of polygons and stars.
From the 13th century onwards, decorative motifs derived fromChinese arts and textiles appeared in Persian tilework. Used alongside pre-existing geometric patterns andarabesques, new tile designs were based on floral, animal, and mythological icons from the Far East, includinglotuses,dianthuses, cloud motifs,phoenixes, anddragons.[7]
The golden age of Persian tilework began during theTimurid Empire. In themo'araq technique, single-color tiles were cut into small geometric pieces and assembled by pouring liquid plaster between them. After hardening, these panels were assembled on the walls of buildings. But the mosaic was not limited to flat areas. Tiles were used to cover both the interior and exterior surfaces of domes. Prominent Timurid examples of this technique include theJame Mosque of Yazd (AD 1324–1365),Goharshad Mosque (AD 1418), the Madrassa of Khan in Shiraz (AD 1615), and the Molana Mosque (AD 1444).[6] Islamic buildings inSamarkand andBukhara in central Asia also exhibited very sophisticated floral ornamentation.
Mihrabs, being the focal points of mosques, were usually the places where most sophisticated tilework was placed. The 14th-century mihrab at Madrasa Imami inIsfahan is an outstanding example of aesthetic union between theIslamic calligrapher's art and abstract ornament. Thepointed arch, framing the mihrab's niche, bears an inscription in Kufic script used in 9th-centuryQur'an.[8]
During theSafavid period, mosaic tiling was often replaced by a technique known asHaft-rang ('seven colors'), a form ofcuerda seca. Pictures were painted on plain rectangle tiles, glazed and fired afterwards. Besides economic reasons, the seven colors method gave more freedom to artists and was less time-consuming. It was popular through theQajar period, when the palette of colors was extended by yellow and orange.[6] The seven colors of Haft Rang tiles were usuallyblack,white,ultramarine,turquoise,red,yellow andfawn.
One of the best known architectural masterpieces of Safavid Iran is the 17th centuryShah Mosque in Isfahan. Its dome is a prime example of tile mosaic and its winter praying hall houses one of the finest ensembles ofcuerda seca tiles in the world. A wide variety of tiles had to be manufactured in order to cover the complex forms of the hall with consistent Haft Rang patterns. The result was a technological triumph as well as a dazzling display of abstract ornament.[8]
Persianate tile traditions continued and spread to much of the Islamic world, notably theİznik pottery ofTurkey under theOttoman Empire in the 16th and 17th centuries. Palaces, public buildings,mosques andtürbe mausoleums were heavily decorated with large brightly colored patterns, typically with floral motifs, andfriezes of astonishing complexity, including floral motifs and calligraphy as well as geometric patterns.
InSouth Asia monuments and shrines adorned withKashi tile work from Persia became a distinct feature of the shrines ofMultan andSindh. TheWazir Khan Mosque in Lahore stands out as one of the masterpieces of Kashi time work from theMughal period.
Thezellige tradition of ArabicNorth Africa uses small colored tiles of various shapes to make very complex geometric patterns. It is halfway to mosaic, but as the different shapes must be fitted precisely together, it falls under tiling. The use of small coloured glass fields also make it rather likeenamelling, but with ceramic rather than metal as the support.
Zellij tilework in the Place El-Hedine,Meknes,Morocco
Medieval Europe made considerable use of painted tiles, sometimes producing very elaborate schemes, of which few have survived. Religious and secular stories were depicted. The imaginary tiles withOld Testament scenes shown on the floor inJan van Eyck's 1434Annunciation in Washington are an example. The 14th century "Tring tiles" in theBritish Museum show childhood scenes from theLife of Christ, possibly for a wall rather than a floor,[9] while their 13th century "Chertsey Tiles", though from an abbey, show scenes ofRichard the Lionheart battling withSaladin in very high-quality work.[10]Medieval letter tiles were used to createChristian inscriptions onchurch floors.
Medieval influences between Middle Eastern tilework and tilework in Europe were mainly throughIslamic Iberia and theByzantine andOttoman Empires. TheAlhambrazellige are said to have inspired thetessellations ofM. C. Escher.[citation needed] Medievalencaustic tiles were made of multiple colours of clay, shaped and baked together to form a pattern that, rather than sitting on the surface, ran right through the thickness of the tile, and thus would not wear away.
Azulejos are derived fromzellij, and the name is likewise derived. The term is both a simple Portuguese and Spanish term for zellige, and a term for later tilework following the tradition. Someazujelos are small-scale geometric patterns or vegetative motifs, some are blue monochrome and highly pictorial, and some are neither. TheBaroque period produced extremely large painted scenes on tiles, usually in blue and white, for walls.Azulejos were also used in Latin American architecture.
17th centuryDelft blue and white tile with sea monster
Delftware wall tiles, typically with a painted design covering only one (rather small) blue and white tile, were ubiquitous in Holland and widely exported over Northern Europe from the 16th century on, replacing many local industries. Several 18th century royal palaces had porcelain rooms with the walls entirely covered in porcelain in tiles or panels. Surviving examples include ones atCapodimonte, Naples, theRoyal Palace of Madrid and the nearbyRoyal Palace of Aranjuez.
William de Morgan, fantastic ducks on 6-inch tile with luster highlights, Fulham period
The Victorian period saw a great revival in tilework, largely as part of theGothic Revival, but also theArts and Crafts Movement. Patterned tiles, or tiles making up patterns, were now mass-produced by machine and reliably level for floors and cheap to produce, especially for churches, schools and public buildings, but also for domestic hallways and bathrooms. For many uses the tougherencaustic tile was used. Wall tiles in various styles also revived; the rise of the bathroom contributing greatly to this, as well as greater appreciation of the benefit ofhygiene in kitchens.William De Morgan was the leading English designer working in tiles, strongly influenced by Islamic designs.
Since the Victorian period tiles have remained standard for kitchens and bathrooms, and many types of public area.
Panot is a type of outdoor cement tile and the associated paving style, both found in Barcelona. In 2010, around 5,000,000 m2 (54,000,000 sq ft) of Barcelona streets were panot-tiled.[11]
Portugal andSão Luís continue their tradition ofazulejo tilework today, with tiles used to decorate buildings, ships,[12] and even rocks.
In 17th century during the colonialization of Spain in the Philippines, they introduced the Baldozas Mosaicos to describe the Mediterranean cement tiles, but they are now more commonly referred to as Machuca tiles during the 19th AD, named after Don Pepe, the son of the renowned producer of Baldozas Mosaicos in the Philippines, Don Jose Machuca by Romero.
Roofs with "beaver tail" tiles inDinkelsbühl, Germany
Roof tiles are overlapping tiles designed mainly to keep outprecipitation such asrain orsnow, and are traditionally made from locally available materials such asclay orslate. Later tiles have been made from materials such asconcrete, andplastic.
Roof tiles can be affixed byscrews ornails, but in some cases historic designs such asMarseilles tiles utilize interlocking systems that can be self-supporting. Tiles typically cover anunderlayment system, which seals the roof against water intrusion.[13]
Clay roof tiles historically gained their color purely from the clay that they were composed of, resulting in largely red, orange, and tan colored roofs. Over time some cultures, notably in Asia, began to apply glazes to clay tiles, achieving a wide variety of colors and combinations. Modern clay roof tiles typically source their color from kiln firing conditions, the application of glaze, or the use of a ceramicengobe.[14] Contrary to popular belief a glaze does not weatherproof a tile, the porosity of the clay body is what determines how well a tile will survive harsh weather conditions.[15]
Making mosaic tilesCross section of an earthenware tileSection through a porcelain stoneware slabThe elaborate floor pattern of the SydneyQueen Victoria BuildingFloor tile in Karpas, northeasternCyprus6"×6" porcelain floor tilesPatio with stone tile,Hawaii, US 1960Cracked tile flooring
Floor tiles are commonly made ofceramic or stone, although recent technological advances have resulted in rubber orglass tiles for floors as well. Ceramic tiles may be painted and glazed. Small mosaic tiles may be laid in various patterns. Floor tiles are typically set intomortar consisting ofsand,Portland cement and often alatex additive. The spaces between the tiles are commonly filled with sanded or unsanded floorgrout, but traditionally mortar was used.
Natural stone tiles can be beautiful but as a natural product they are less uniform in color and pattern, and require more planning for use and installation. Mass-produced stone tiles are uniform in width and length. Granite or marble tiles are sawn on both sides and then polished or finished on the top surface so that they have a uniform thickness. Other natural stone tiles such as slate are typically "riven" (split) on the top surface so that the thickness of the tile varies slightly from one spot on the tile to another and from one tile to another. Variations in tile thickness can be handled by adjusting the amount of mortar under each part of the tile, by using wide grout lines that "ramp" between different thicknesses, or by using a cold chisel to knock off high spots.
Some stone tiles such as polished granite, marble, and travertine are very slippery when wet. Stone tiles with a riven surface such as slate or with a sawn and then sandblasted or honed surface will be more slip-resistant. Ceramic tiles for use in wet areas can be made more slip-resistant by using very small tiles so that the grout lines acts as grooves, by imprinting a contour pattern onto the face of the tile, or by adding a non-slip material, such as sand, to the glazed surface.
Thehardness of natural stone tiles varies such that some of the softer stone (e.g. limestone) tiles are not suitable for very heavy-traffic floor areas. On the other hand, ceramic tiles typically have a glazed upper surface and when that becomes scratched or pitted the floor looks worn, whereas the same amount of wear on natural stone tiles will not show, or will be less noticeable.
Natural stone tiles can be stained by spilled liquids; they must be sealed and periodically resealed with a sealant in contrast to ceramic tiles which only need their grout lines sealed. However, because of the complex, nonrepeating patterns in natural stone, small amounts of dirt on many natural stone floor tiles do not show.
The tendency of floor tiles to stain depends not only on a sealant being applied, and periodically reapplied, but also on their porosity or how porous the stone is. Slate is an example of a less porous stone while limestone is an example of a more porous stone. Differentgranites and marbles have different porosities with the less porous ones being more valued and more expensive.
Most vendors of stone tiles emphasize that there will be variation in color and pattern from one batch of tiles to another of the same description and variation within the same batch. Stone floor tiles tend to be heavier than ceramic tiles and somewhat more prone to breakage during shipment.
Rubber floor tiles have a variety of uses, both in residential and commercial settings. They are especially useful in situations where it is desired to have high-traction floors or protection for an easily breakable floor. Some common uses include flooring of garage, workshops, patios, swimming pool decks, sport courts, gyms, and dance floors.
Plastic floor tiles including interlocking floor tiles that can be installed without adhesive or glue are a recent innovation and are suitable for areas subject to heavy traffic, wet areas and floors that are subject to movement, damp or contamination from oil, grease or other substances that may prevent adhesion to the substrate. Common uses include old factory floors, garages, gyms and sports complexes, schools and shops.
Ceiling tiles are lightweight tiles used inside buildings. They are placed in an aluminium grid; they provide little thermal insulation but are generally designed either to improve the acoustics of a room or to reduce the volume of air being heated or cooled.
Mineral fiber tiles are fabricated from a range of products; wet felt tiles can be manufactured from perlite, mineral wool, and fibers from recycled paper; stone wool tiles are created by combining molten stone and binders which is then spun to create the tile; gypsum tiles are based on the soft mineral and then finished with vinyl, paper or a decorative face.[citation needed]
Ceiling tiles very often have patterns on the front face; these are there in most circumstances to aid with the tiles ability to improve acoustics.[citation needed]
Ceiling tiles also provide a barrier to the spread of smoke and fire. Breaking, displacing, or removing ceiling tiles enables hot gases and smoke from a fire to rise and accumulate above detectors and sprinklers. Doing so delays their activation, enabling fires to grow more rapidly.[16]
Ceiling tiles, especially in oldMediterranean houses, were made of terracotta and were placed on top of the wooden ceiling beams and upon those were placed the roof tiles. They were then plastered or painted, but nowadays are usually left bare for decorative purposes.
Modern-day tile ceilings may be flush mounted (nail up or glue up) or installed asdropped ceilings.
This is a US term, and defined inASTM standard C242 as a ceramic mosaic tile or paver that is generally made by dust-pressing and of a composition yielding a tile that is dense, fine-grained, and smooth, with sharply-formed face, usually impervious. The colours of such tiles are generally clear and bright.[19]
TheISO 13006 defines a "porcelain tile" as a "fullyvitrified tile with water absorption less than or equal to 0.5%, belonging to groups AIa and BIa (of ISO 13006).".[20] TheANSI defines as "a ceramic tile that has 'a water absorption of 0.5%' or less.” It is made generally by the pressed or extruded method."[21]
Similar to mosaics or other patterned tiles, pebble tiles are tiles made up of small pebbles attached to a backing. The tile is generally designed in an interlocking pattern so that final installations fit of multiple tiles fit together to have a seamless appearance. A relatively new tile design, pebble tiles were originally developed in Indonesia using pebbles found in various locations in the country. Today, pebble tiles feature all types of stones and pebbles from around the world.
Printing techniques and digital manipulation of art and photography are used in what is known as "custom tile printing".Dye sublimation printers,inkjet printers and ceramic inks and toners permit printing on a variety of tile types yielding photographic-quality reproduction.[22] Using digital image capture viascanning ordigital cameras,bitmap/raster images can be prepared inphoto editing software programs. Specialized custom-tile printing techniques permit transfer under heat and pressure or the use of high temperature kilns to fuse the picture to the tile substrate. This has become a method of producing custom tile murals for kitchens, showers, and commercial decoration in restaurants, hotels, and corporate lobbies.
[23] Recent technology applied to Digital ceramic and porcelain printers allow images to be printed with a wider colorgamut and greater color stability even when fired in akiln up to 2200 °F.
A method for custom tile printing involving a diamond-tipped drill controlled by a computer. Compared with thelaser engravings, diamond etching is in almost every circumstance more permanent.[citation needed]
The elaborate and colourfulzellige tessellations of glazed tiles at theAlhambra in Spain that attracted the attention ofM. C. Escher
Certain shapes of tiles, most obviouslyrectangles, can be replicated to cover a surface with no gaps. These shapes are said totessellate (from theLatintessella, 'tile') and such a tiling is called atessellation. Geometric patterns of some Islamic polychrome decorative tilings are rather complicated (seeIslamic geometric patterns and, in particular,Girih tiles), even up to supposedly quasiperiodic ones, similar toPenrose tilings.
Carboni, S. & Masuya, T. (1993).Persian tiles. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art.
Marilyn Y. Goldberg, "Greek Temples and Chinese Roofs,"American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 87, No. 3. (Jul. 1983), pp. 305–310
Örjan Wikander, "Archaic Roof Tiles the First Generations,"Hesperia, Vol. 59, No. 1. (Jan.–Mar. 1990), pp. 285–290
William Rostoker; Elizabeth Gebhard, "The Reproduction of Rooftiles for the Archaic Temple of Poseidon at Isthmia, Greece,"Journal of Field Archaeology, Vol. 8, No. 2. (Summer, 1981), pp. 211–227
Michel Kornmann and CTTB, "Clay bricks and roof tiles, manufacturing and properties", Soc. Industrie Minerale, Paris (2007)ISBN2-9517765-6-X
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