This article is about the historical ethno-cultural region of Tibet. For the current Chinese administrative division, seeTibet Autonomous Region. For the country that existed from 1912 to 1951, seeTibet (1912–1951).
TheTibetan Empire emerged in the 7th century. At its height in the 9th century, the Tibetan Empire extended far beyond the Tibetan Plateau, from theTarim Basin andPamirs in the west, toYunnan andBengal in the southeast. It then divided into a variety of territories. The bulk of western and central Tibet (Ü-Tsang) was often at least nominally unified under a series of Tibetan governments inLhasa,Shigatse, or nearby locations. The eastern regions ofKham andAmdo often maintained a more decentralized indigenous political structure, being divided among a number of small principalities and tribal groups, while also often falling under Chinese rule; most of this area was eventually annexed into the Chinese provinces ofSichuan andQinghai. The current borders of Tibet were generally established in the 18th century.[7]
TheTibetan independence movement[10] is principally led by theTibetan diaspora.[11] Human rights groups have accused the Chinese government of abuses ofhuman rights in Tibet, includingtorture, arbitrary arrests, and religious repression, with the Chinese government tightly controlling information and denying external scrutiny.[12][13] While there are conflicting reports on the scale of human rights violations, including allegations of cultural genocide and theSinicization of Tibet, widespread suppression of Tibetan culture and dissent continues to be documented.
AmericanTibetologistElliot Sperling has argued in favor of a recent tendency by some authors writing in Chinese to revive the termTubote (simplified Chinese:图伯特; traditional Chinese:圖伯特; pinyin:Túbótè) for modern use in place ofXizang, on the grounds thatTubote more clearly includes the entireTibetan plateau rather than simply theTibet Autonomous Region.[19]
The English wordTibet orThibet dates back to the 18th century.[20]Historical linguists generally agree that "Tibet" names in European languages areloanwords fromArabicṬībat orTūbātt (Arabic:طيبة، توبات), itself deriving fromTurkicTöbäd (plural oftöbän), literally 'The Heights'.[21]
From the perspective of historical linguistics, Tibetan most closely resemblesBurmese among the major languages of Asia. Grouping these two together with other apparently related languages spoken in theHimalayan lands, as well as in the highlands of Southeast Asia and the Sino-Tibetan frontier regions, linguists have generally concluded that there exists a Tibeto-Burman family of languages. More controversial is the theory that the Tibeto-Burman family is itself part of a larger language family, calledSino-Tibetan, and that through it Tibetan and Burmese are distant cousins of Chinese.[22]
The language has numerous regional dialects which are generally not mutually intelligible. It is employed throughout the Tibetan plateau andBhutan and is also spoken in parts ofNepal and northern India, such asSikkim. In general, the dialects of central Tibet (including Lhasa),Kham,Amdo and some smaller nearby areas are considered Tibetan dialects. Other forms, particularlyDzongkha,Sikkimese,Sherpa, andLadakhi, are considered by their speakers, largely for political reasons, to be separate languages. However, if the latter group of Tibetan-type languages are included in the calculation, then 'greater Tibetan' is spoken by approximately 6 million people across the Tibetan Plateau. Tibetan is also spoken by approximately 150,000 exile speakers who have fled from modern-day Tibet to India and other countries.[citation needed]
Although spoken Tibetan varies according to the region, the written language, based onClassical Tibetan, is consistent throughout. This is probably due to the long-standing influence of the Tibetan empire, whose rule embraced (and extended at times far beyond) the present Tibetan linguistic area, which runs fromGilgit Baltistan in the west toYunnan andSichuan in the east, and from north ofQinghai Lake south as far as Bhutan. The Tibetan language has itsown script which it shares withLadakhi andDzongkha, and which is derived from the ancient IndianBrāhmī script.[23]
Humans inhabited the Tibetan Plateau at least 21,000 years ago.[26] This population was largely replaced around 3,000BP byNeolithic immigrants from northern China, but there is a partial genetic continuity between the Paleolithic inhabitants and contemporary Tibetan populations.[26]
The earliest Tibetan historical texts identify theZhang Zhung culture as a people who migrated from the Amdo region into what is now the region ofGuge in western Tibet.[27] Zhang Zhung is considered to be the original home of theBön religion.[28] By the 1st century BCE, a neighboring kingdom arose in theYarlung valley, and the Yarlung king,Drigum Tsenpo, attempted to remove the influence of the Zhang Zhung by expelling the Zhang's Bön priests from Yarlung.[29] He was assassinated and Zhang Zhung continued its dominance of the region until it was annexed by Songtsen Gampo in the 7th century. Prior toSongtsen Gampo, the kings of Tibet were more mythological than factual, and there is insufficient evidence of their existence.[30]
Map of the Tibetan Empire at its greatest extent between the 780s and the 790s CE
The history of a unified Tibet begins with the rule ofSongtsen Gampo (604–650CE), who united parts of theYarlung River Valley and founded the Tibetan Empire. He also brought in many reforms, and Tibetan power spread rapidly, creating a large and powerful empire. It is traditionally considered that his first wife was the Princess of Nepal,Bhrikuti, and that she played a great role in the establishment of Buddhism in Tibet. In 640, he marriedPrincess Wencheng, the niece of the Chinese emperorTaizong of Tang China.[31]
Under the next few Tibetan kings, Buddhism became established as the state religion and Tibetan power increased even further over large areas ofCentral Asia, while major inroads were made into Chinese territory, even reaching theTang's capitalChang'an (modernXi'an) in late 763.[32] However, the Tibetan occupation of Chang'an only lasted for fifteen days, after which they were defeated by Tang and its ally, the TurkicUyghur Khaganate.
TheKingdom of Nanzhao (inYunnan and neighbouring regions) remained under Tibetan control from 750 to 794, when they turned on their Tibetan overlords and helped the Chinese inflict a serious defeat on the Tibetans.[33]
In 747, the hold of Tibet was loosened by the campaign of generalGao Xianzhi, who tried to re-open the direct communications between Central Asia andKashmir. By 750, the Tibetans had lost almost all of their central Asian possessions to theChinese. However, after Gao Xianzhi's defeat by theArabs andQarluqs at theBattle of Talas (751) and the subsequentcivil war known as theAn Lushan Rebellion (755), Chinese influence decreased rapidly and Tibetan influence resumed.
At its height in the 780s to 790s, the Tibetan Empire reached its highest glory when it ruled and controlled a territory stretching from modern-day Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Burma, China, India, Nepal, Pakistan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan.
In 821/822CE, Tibet and China signed a peace treaty. A bilingual account of this treaty, including details of the borders between the two countries, is inscribed on astone pillar which stands outside theJokhang temple in Lhasa.[34] Tibet continued as a Central Asian empire until the mid-9th century, when a civil war over succession led to the collapse of imperial Tibet. The period that followed is known traditionally as theEra of Fragmentation, when political control over Tibet became divided between regional warlords and tribes with no dominant centralized authority. AnIslamic invasion from Bengal took place in 1206.
The MongolYuan dynasty, through theBureau of Buddhist and Tibetan Affairs, or Xuanzheng Yuan, ruled Tibet through a top-level administrative department. One of the department's purposes was to select adpon-chen ("great administrator"), usually appointed by the lama and confirmed by the Mongol emperor in Beijing.[35] TheSakya lama retained a degree of autonomy, acting as the political authority of the region, while thedpon-chen held administrative and military power. Mongol rule of Tibet remained separate from the main provinces of China, but the region existedunder the administration of the Yuan dynasty. If the Sakya lama ever came into conflict with thedpon-chen, thedpon-chen had the authority to send Chinese troops into the region.[35]
Tibet retained nominal power over religious and regional political affairs, while the Mongols managed a structural and administrative[36] rule over the region, reinforced by the rare military intervention. This existed as a "diarchic structure" under the Yuan emperor, with power primarily in favor of the Mongols.[35] Mongolian princeKhuden gained temporal power in Tibet in the 1240s and sponsoredSakya Pandita, whose seat became the capital of Tibet.Drogön Chögyal Phagpa, Sakya Pandita's nephew becameImperial Preceptor ofKublai Khan, founder of the Yuan dynasty.
Yuan control over the region ended with the Ming overthrow of the Yuan andTai Situ Changchub Gyaltsen's revolt against the Mongols.[37] Following the uprising, Tai Situ Changchub Gyaltsen founded thePhagmodrupa dynasty, and sought to reduce Yuan influences over Tibetan culture and politics.[38]
Between 1346 and 1354, Tai Situ Changchub Gyaltsen toppled the Sakya and founded the Phagmodrupa dynasty. The following 80 years saw the founding of theGelug school (also known as Yellow Hats) by the disciples ofJe Tsongkhapa, and the founding of the importantGanden,Drepung andSera monasteries near Lhasa. However, internal strife within the dynasty and the strong localism of the various fiefs and political-religious factions led to a long series of internal conflicts. The minister familyRinpungpa, based inTsang (West Central Tibet), dominated politics after 1435. In 1565 they were overthrown by theTsangpa dynasty ofShigatse which expanded its power in different directions of Tibet in the following decades and favoured theKarma Kagyu sect.
Tibet in 1734.Royaume de Thibet ("Kingdom of Tibet") inla Chine, la Tartarie Chinoise, et le Thibet ("China, ChineseTartary, and Tibet") on a 1734 map byJean Baptiste Bourguignon d'Anville, based on earlier Jesuit maps.
In 1578,Altan Khan of theTümed Mongols gaveSonam Gyatso, a high lama of the Gelugpa school, the nameDalai Lama,Dalai being the Mongolian translation of the Tibetan nameGyatso "Ocean".[39]
The5th Dalai Lama (1617–1682) is known for unifying the Tibetan heartland under the control of theGelug school ofTibetan Buddhism, after defeating the rivalKagyu andJonang sects and the secular ruler, theTsangpa prince, in a prolonged civil war. His efforts were successful in part because of aid fromGüshi Khan, theOirat leader of theKhoshut Khanate. With Güshi Khan as a largely uninvolved overlord, the 5th Dalai Lama and his intimates established a civil administration which is referred to by historians as theLhasa state. This Tibetan regime or government is also referred to as theGanden Phodrang.
Qing dynasty rule in Tibet began with their1720 expedition to the country when they expelled the invadingDzungars.Amdo came under Qing control in 1724, and easternKham was incorporated into neighbouring Chinese provinces in 1728.[40] Meanwhile, the Qing government sent resident commissioners calledAmbans to Lhasa. In 1750, the Ambans and the majority of theHan Chinese andManchus living in Lhasa were killed ina riot, and Qing troops arrived quickly and suppressed the rebels in the next year. Like the preceding Yuan dynasty, the Manchus of the Qing dynasty exerted military and administrative control of the region, while granting it a degree of political autonomy. The Qing commander publicly executed a number of supporters of the rebels and, as in 1723 and 1728, made changes in the political structure and drew up a formal organization plan. The Qing now restored the Dalai Lama as ruler, leading the governing council calledKashag,[41] but elevated the role ofAmbans to include more direct involvement in Tibetan internal affairs. At the same time, the Qing took steps to counterbalance the power of the aristocracy by adding officials recruited from the clergy to key posts.[42]
For several decades, peace reigned in Tibet, but in 1792, the QingQianlong Emperor senta large Chinese army into Tibet to push the invadingNepalese out. This prompted yet another Qing reorganization of the Tibetan government, this time through a written plan called the "Twenty-Nine Regulations for Better Government in Tibet". Qing military garrisons staffed with Qing troops were now also established near the Nepalese border.[43] Tibet was dominated by the Manchus in various stages in the 18th century, and the years immediately following the 1792 regulations were the peak of the Qing imperial commissioners' authority; but there was no attempt to make Tibet a Chinese province.[44]
In 1834, theSikh Empire invaded and annexedLadakh, a culturally Tibetan region that was an independent kingdom at the time. Seven years later, a Sikh army led byGeneral Zorawar Singh invaded western Tibet from Ladakh, starting theSino-Sikh War. A Qing-Tibetan army repelled the invaders but was in turn defeated when it chased the Sikhs into Ladakh. The war ended with the signing of theTreaty of Chushul between the Chinese and Sikh empires.[45]
As the Qing dynasty weakened, its authority over Tibet also gradually declined, and by the mid-19th century, its influence was minuscule. Qing authority over Tibet had become more symbolic than real by the late 19th century,[46][47][48][49] although in the 1860s, the Tibetans still chose for reasons of their own to emphasize the empire's symbolic authority and make it seem substantial.[50]
In 1904, aBritish expedition to Tibet, spurred in part by a fear thatRussia was extending its power into Tibet as part ofthe Great Game, was launched. Although the expedition initially set out with the stated purpose of resolving border disputes between Tibet andSikkim, it quickly turned into a military invasion. The British expeditionary force, consisting ofmostly Indian troops, quickly invaded and captured Lhasa, with theDalai Lama fleeing to the countryside.[52] Afterwards, the leader of the expedition,Sir Francis Younghusband, negotiated theConvention Between Great Britain and Tibet with the Tibetans, which guaranteed the British great economic influence but ensured the regionremained under Chinese control. The Qing imperial resident, known as theAmban, publicly repudiated the treaty, while the British government, eager for friendly relations with China, negotiated a new treaty two years later known as theConvention Between Great Britain and China Respecting Tibet. The British agreed not to annex or interfere in Tibet in return for an indemnity from the Chinese government, while China agreed not to permit any other foreign state to interfere with the territory or internal administration of Tibet.[52]
In 1910, the Qing government senta military expedition of its own underZhao Erfeng to establish direct Manchu-Chinese rule and, in an imperial edict, deposed the Dalai Lama, who fled to British India. Zhao Erfeng defeated the Tibetan military conclusively and expelled the Dalai Lama's forces from the province. His actions were unpopular, and there was much animosity against him for his mistreatment of civilians and disregard for local culture.[citation needed]
After theXinhai Revolution (1911–1912) toppled the Qing dynasty and the last Qing troops were escorted out of Tibet, the newRepublic of China apologized for the actions of the Qing and offered to restore the Dalai Lama's title.[53] The Dalai Lama refused any Chinese title and declared himself ruler of anindependent Tibet.[54] In 1913, Tibet andOuter Mongolia concludeda treaty of mutual recognition.[55] The ROC continued to view the former Qing territory as its own, including Tibet.[56]: 69 For the next 36 years, the 13th Dalai Lama and theregents who succeeded him governed Tibet. During this time, Tibet fought Chinese warlords for control of the ethnically Tibetan areas inXikang andQinghai (parts of Kham and Amdo) along the upper reaches of theYangtze River.[57] In 1914, the Tibetan government signed theSimla Convention with Britain, which recognized Chinese suzerainty over Tibet in return for a border settlement. China refused to sign the convention.[58] Tibet continued to lack clear boundaries or international recognition of its status.[56]: 69
When in the 1930s and 1940s the regents displayed negligence in affairs, the Kuomintang Government of the Republic of China took advantage of this to expand its reach into the territory.[59] On December 20, 1941, Kuomintang leaderChiang Kai-Shek noted in his diary that Tibet would be among the territories which he would demand as restitution for China following the conclusion of World War II.[60]
A poster saying "Thank you India. 50 years in Exile."Manali, 2010.
Emerging with control over most ofmainland China after theChinese Civil War, thePeople's Republic of Chinaannexed Tibet in 1950 and negotiated theSeventeen Point Agreement with the newly enthroned14th Dalai Lama's government, affirming the People's Republic of China's sovereignty but granting the area autonomy. Subsequently, on his journey into exile, the 14th Dalai Lama completely repudiated the agreement, which he has repeated on many occasions.[61][62] According to theCIA, the Chinese used the Dalai Lama to gain control of the military's training and actions.[63]
The Dalai Lama had a strong following as many people from Tibet looked at him not just as their political leader, but as their spiritual leader.[64] After the Dalai Lama's government fled toDharamsala, India, during the1959 Tibetan Rebellion, it established arival government-in-exile. Afterwards, theCentral People's Government in Beijing renounced the agreement and began implementation of the halted social and political reforms.[65] During theGreat Leap Forward, over 200,000 Tibetans may have died[66] and approximately 6,000 monasteries were destroyed during theCultural Revolution—destroying the vast majority of historic Tibetan architecture.[67]
In 1980, General Secretary and reformistHu Yaobang visited Tibet and ushered in a period of social, political, andeconomic liberalization.[68] At the end of the decade, however, before theTiananmen Square protests of 1989, monks in theDrepung andSera monasteries started protesting for independence. The government halted reforms and started an anti-separatist campaign.[68] Human rights organisations have been critical of the Beijing and Lhasa governments' approach tohuman rights in the region when cracking down on separatist convulsions that have occurred around monasteries and cities, most recently in the2008 Tibetan unrest.
The central region of Tibet is now anautonomous region within China, theTibet Autonomous Region. The Tibet Autonomous Region is a province-level entity of the People's Republic of China. It is governed by a People's Government, led by a chairman. In practice, however, the chairman is subordinate to the branch secretary of theChinese Communist Party (CCP). In 2010, it was reported that, as a matter of convention, the chairman had almost always been an ethnic Tibetan, while the party secretary had always been ethnically non-Tibetan.[69]
Tibetan Plateau and surrounding areas above 1600 m –topography.[70][71] Tibet is often called the "roof of the world".Himalayas, on the southern rim of the Tibetan plateau
All of modern China, including Tibet, is considered a part ofEast Asia.[72] Historically, some European sources also considered parts of Tibet to lie inCentral Asia. Tibet is west of theCentral China plain. In China, Tibet is regarded as part of西部 (Xībù), a term usually translated by Chinese media as "the Western section", meaning "Western China".[citation needed]
The climate is severely dry nine months of the year, and average annual snowfall is only 46 cm (18 inches), due to therain shadow effect. Western passes receive small amounts of fresh snow each year but remain traversible all year round. Low temperatures are prevalent throughout these western regions, where bleak desolation is unrelieved by any vegetation bigger than a low bush, and where the wind sweeps unchecked across vast expanses of arid plain. The Indianmonsoon exerts some influence on eastern Tibet. Northern Tibet is subject to high temperatures in the summer and intense cold in the winter.[citation needed]
Climate data for Lhasa (1986−2015 normals, extremes 1951−2022)
Sus scrofa expanded from its origin in southeast Asia into the Plateau, acquiring andfixing adaptive alleles for the high-altitude environment.[81] The forests of Tibet are home to black bears, red pandas, musk deer, barking deer, and squirrels. Monkeys such asrhesus macaques andlangurs live in the warmer forest zones. Tibetan antelopes, gazelles, and kiangs gaze on the grasslands of the Tibetan plateau. There are more than 500 bird species in Tibet. Because of the high altitude and harsh climate, there are few insects in Tibet.[82]
Snow leopards are hunted for their fur and the eggs of black-necked cranes have been collected as a delicacy food.
Cultural Tibet consists of several regions. These include Amdo (A mdo) in the northeast, which is administratively part of the provinces of Qinghai, Gansu, and Sichuan. Kham (Khams) in the southeast encompasses parts of western Sichuan, northernYunnan, southern Qinghai, and the eastern part of the Tibet Autonomous Region.Ü-Tsang (dBus gTsang) (Ü in the center, Tsang in the center-west, and Ngari (mNga' ris) in the far west) covered the central and western portion of Tibet Autonomous Region.[83]
Tibetan cultural influences extend to the neighboring states ofBhutan, Nepal, regions of India such asSikkim,Ladakh,Lahaul, andSpiti, Northern PakistanBaltistan orBalti-yul in addition to designated Tibetanautonomous areas in adjacent Chinese provinces.
There are over 800 settlements in Tibet.Lhasa is Tibet's traditional capital and the capital of Tibet Autonomous Region.[82] It contains two world heritage sites – thePotala Palace andNorbulingka, which were the residences of the Dalai Lama. Lhasa contains a number of significant temples and monasteries, includingJokhang andRamoche Temple.
Shigatse is the second largest city in the Tibet AR, west of Lhasa.Gyantse andQamdo are also amongst the largest.
The Tibetanyak is an integral part of Tibetan life.
The Tibetan economy is dominated bysubsistence agriculture. Due to limited arable land, the primary occupation of the Tibetan Plateau is raising livestock, such assheep, cattle,goats,camels,yaks,dzo, andhorses.
The main crops grown arebarley, wheat,buckwheat,rye, potatoes, and assorted fruits and vegetables. Tibet is ranked the lowest among China's 31 provinces[84] on the Human Development Index according to UN Development Programme data.[85] In recent years, due to increased interest in Tibetan Buddhism, tourism has become an increasingly important sector, and is actively promoted by the authorities.[86] Tourism brings in the most income from the sale of handicrafts. These include Tibetan hats, jewelry (silver and gold), wooden items, clothing, quilts, fabrics,Tibetan rugs and carpets. The Central People's Government exempts Tibet from all taxation and provides 90% of Tibet's government expenditures.[87][88][89][90] However, most of this investment goes to pay migrant workers who do not settle in Tibet and send much of their income home to other provinces.[91]
Pastoralnomads constitute about 40% of the ethnicTibetan population.[92]
Forty percent of the rural cash income in the Tibet Autonomous Region is derived from the harvesting of the fungusOphiocordyceps sinensis (formerlyCordyceps sinensis); contributing at least 1.8 billion yuan, (US$225 million) to the region's GDP.[93]
In January 2007, the Chinese government issued a report outlining the discovery of a large mineral deposit under theTibetan Plateau.[97] The deposit has an estimated value of $128 billion and may double Chinese reserves of zinc, copper, and lead. The Chinese government sees this as a way to alleviate the nation's dependence on foreign mineral imports for its growing economy. However, critics worry that mining these vast resources will harm Tibet's fragile ecosystem and undermine Tibetan culture.[97]
On January 15, 2009, China announced the construction of Tibet's first expressway, theLhasa Airport Expressway, a 37.9 km (23.5 mi) stretch ofcontrolled-access highway in southwestern Lhasa. The project will cost 1.55 billionyuan (US$227 million).[98]
The State Council approved TibetLhasa Economic and Technological Development Zone as a state-level development zone in 2001. It is located in the western suburbs of Lhasa, the capital of the Tibet Autonomous Region. It is 50 kilometres (31 miles) away from theGonggar Airport, and 2 km (1.2 mi) away from Lhasa Railway Station and 2 km (1.2 mi) away from 318 national highway.
The zone has a planned area of 5.46 km2 (2.11 sq mi) and is divided into two zones. Zone A developed a land area of 2.51 km2 (0.97 sq mi) for construction purposes. It is a flat zone, and has the natural conditions for good drainage.[100]
The proportion of the non-Tibetan population in Tibet is disputed. On the one hand, the Central Tibetan Administration of the Dalai Lama accuses China of actively swamping Tibet withmigrants in order to alter Tibet's demographic makeup.[101] On the other hand, according to the2010 Chinese census ethnic Tibetans comprise 90% of a total population of 3 million in theTibet Autonomous Region.[102][better source needed]
Monkhood in Tibet, Xigatse area, August 2005ThePhugtal Monastery in south-eastZanskarBuddhist monks practicing debate inDrepung Monastery
Religion is extremely important to the Tibetans and has a strong influence over all aspects of their lives.Bön is the indigenous religion of Tibet, but has been almost eclipsed by Tibetan Buddhism, a distinctive form ofMahayana andVajrayana, which was introduced into Tibet from the Sanskrit Buddhist tradition of northern India.[103] Tibetan Buddhism is practiced not only in Tibet but also inMongolia, parts of northern India, theBuryat Republic, theTuva Republic, and in theRepublic of Kalmykia and some other parts of China. During China'sCultural Revolution, nearly all Tibet'smonasteries were ransacked and destroyed by theRed Guards.[104][105][106] A few monasteries have begun to rebuild since the 1980s (with limited support from the Chinese government) and greater religious freedom has been granted – although it is still limited. Monks returned to monasteries across Tibet and monastic education resumed even though the number of monks imposed is strictly limited.[104][107][108] Before the 1950s, between 10 and 20% of males in Tibet were monks.[109]
Tibetan Buddhism has five main traditions (the suffixpa is comparable to "er" in English):
Gelug(pa),Way of Virtue, also known casually asYellow Hat, whose spiritual head is theGanden Tripa and whose temporal head is theDalai Lama. Successive Dalai Lamas ruled Tibet from the mid-17th to mid-20th centuries. This order was founded in the 14th to 15th centuries byJe Tsongkhapa, based on the foundations of theKadampa tradition. Tsongkhapa was renowned for both his scholasticism and his virtue. The Dalai Lama belongs to the Gelugpa school, and is regarded as the embodiment of the Bodhisattva of Compassion.[110]
Kagyu(pa),Oral Lineage. This contains one major subsect and one minor subsect. The first, the Dagpo Kagyu, encompasses those Kagyu schools that trace back toGampopa. In turn, the Dagpo Kagyu consists of four major sub-sects: theKarma Kagyu, headed by aKarmapa, the Tsalpa Kagyu, the Barom Kagyu, and Pagtru Kagyu. The once-obscureShangpa Kagyu, which was famously represented by the 20th-century teacherKalu Rinpoche, traces its history back to the Indian master Niguma, sister of Kagyu lineage holderNaropa. This is an oral tradition which is very much concerned with the experiential dimension of meditation. Its most famous exponent was Milarepa, an 11th-century mystic.
Sakya(pa),Grey Earth, headed by theSakya Trizin, founded by Khon Konchog Gyalpo, a disciple of the great translator Drokmi Lotsawa.Sakya Pandita 1182–1251 CE was the great-grandson of Khon Konchog Gyalpo. This school emphasizes scholarship.
Jonang(pa) Its origins in Tibet can be traced to early 12th century masterYumo Mikyo Dorje, but became much wider known with the help ofDolpopa Sherab Gyaltsen, a monk originally trained in theSakya school. The Jonang school was widely thought to have become extinct in the late 17th century at the hands of the5th Dalai Lama, who forcibly annexed the Jonang monasteries to hisGelug school, declaring them heretical. Thus,Tibetologists were astonished when fieldwork turned up several active Jonangpa monasteries, including the main monastery, Tsangwa, located in Zamtang County, Sichuan. Almost 40 monasteries, comprising about 5000 monks, have subsequently been found, including some in theAmdo Tibetan andrGyalgrong areas ofQinghai, Sichuan and Tibet. One of the primary supporters of the Jonang lineage in exile has been the14th Dalai Lama of the Gelugpa lineage. The Jonang tradition has recently officially registered with theTibetan Government in exile to be recognized as the fifth living Buddhist tradition ofTibetan Buddhism. The 14th Dalai Lama assignedJebtsundamba Khutuktu of Mongolia (who is considered to be an incarnation of Taranatha) as the leader of the Jonang tradition.
The Chinese government continued to pursue a strategy of forced assimilation and suppression of Tibetan Buddhism, as demonstrated by the laws designed to control the next reincarnation of the Dalai Lama and those of other Tibetan eminent lamas. Monks and nuns who refused to denounce the Dalai Lama have been expelled from their monasteries, imprisoned, and tortured.[111]
It was reported in June 2021 that amidst the2020–2022 China–India skirmishes, thePeople's Liberation Army had been forming a new unit for Tibetans who would be taken to Buddhist monks for religious blessings after completing their training.[112]
The first Christians documented to have reached Tibet were theNestorians, of whom various remains and inscriptions have been found in Tibet. They were also present at the imperial camp ofMöngke Khan at Shira Ordo, where they debated in 1256 withKarma Pakshi (1204/6-83), head of theKarma Kagyu order.[113][114] Desideri, who reached Lhasa in 1716, encountered Armenian and Russian merchants.[115]
Roman CatholicJesuits andCapuchins arrived from Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries. Portuguese missionaries Jesuit FatherAntónio de Andrade and Brother Manuel Marques first reached the kingdom ofGelu in western Tibet in 1624 and was welcomed by the royal family who allowed them to build a church later on.[116][117] By 1627, there were about a hundred local converts in the Guge kingdom.[118] Later on, Christianity was introduced toRudok,Ladakh and Tsang and was welcomed by the ruler of theTsang kingdom, where Andrade and his fellows established a Jesuit outpost at Shigatse in 1626.[119]
In 1661 another Jesuit,Johann Grueber, crossed Tibet fromSining to Lhasa (where he spent a month), before heading on to Nepal.[120] He was followed by others who actually built a church in Lhasa. These included the Jesuit FatherIppolito Desideri, 1716–1721, who gained a deep knowledge of Tibetan culture, language and Buddhism, and various Capuchins in 1707–1711, 1716–1733 and 1741–1745,[121] Christianity was used by some Tibetan monarchs and their courts and theKarmapa sect lamas to counterbalance the influence of theGelugpa sect in the 17th century until in 1745 when all the missionaries were expelled at the lama's insistence.[122][123][124][125][126][127]
Proselytising has been illegal in China since 1949. But as of 2013[update], many Christian missionaries were reported to be active in Tibet with the tacit approval of Chinese authorities, who view the missionaries as a counterforce to Tibetan Buddhism or as a boon to the local economy.[130]
Muslims have been living in Tibet since as early as the 8th or 9th century. In Tibetan cities, there are small communities ofMuslims, known as Kachee (Kache), who trace their origin to immigrants from three main regions:Kashmir (Kachee Yul in ancient Tibetan), Ladakh and the Central Asian Turkic countries. Islamic influence in Tibet also came from Persia. A Muslim SufiSyed Ali Hamdani preached to the people ofBaltistan, then known as little Tibet. After 1959, a group of Tibetan Muslims made a case for Indian nationality based on their historic roots to Kashmir and the Indian government declared all Tibetan Muslims Indian citizens later on that year.[131] Other Muslim ethnic groups who have long inhabited Tibet includeHui,Salar,Dongxiang andBonan. There is also a well established Chinese Muslim community (gya kachee), which traces its ancestry back to theHui ethnic group of China.
Tibetan representations of art are intrinsically bound withTibetan Buddhism and commonly depictdeities or variations ofBuddha in various forms from bronze Buddhist statues and shrines, to highly colorfulthangka paintings andmandalas.[citation needed] Thangkas are Tibet's traditional cloth paintings. Rendered on cotton cloth with a thin rod at the top, they portray Buddhist deities or themes in color and detail.[82]
Tibetan architecture contains Chinese and Indian influences, and reflects a deeplyBuddhist approach. TheBuddhist wheel, along with two dragons, can be seen on nearly everyGompa in Tibet. The design of the TibetanChörtens can vary, from roundish walls inKham to squarish, four-sided walls inLadakh.
The most distinctive feature of Tibetan architecture is that many of the houses and monasteries are built on elevated, sunny sites facing the south, and are often made out of a mixture of rocks, wood, cement and earth. Little fuel is available for heat or lighting, so flat roofs are built to conserve heat, and multiple windows are constructed to let in sunlight. Walls are usually sloped inwards at 10 degrees as a precaution against the frequent earthquakes in this mountainous area.
Standing at 117 metres (384 feet) in height and 360 metres (1,180 feet) in width, thePotala Palace is the most important example of Tibetan architecture. Formerly the residence of theDalai Lama, it contains over one thousand rooms within thirteen stories, and houses portraits of the past Dalai Lamas and statues of the Buddha. It is divided between the outer White Palace, which serves as the administrative quarters, and the inner Red Quarters, which houses the assembly hall of the Lamas, chapels, 10,000 shrines, and a vast library of Buddhist scriptures. The Potala Palace is aWorld Heritage Site, as isNorbulingka, the former summer residence of the Dalai Lama.
The music of Tibet reflects the cultural heritage of the trans-Himalayan region, centered in Tibet but also known wherever ethnicTibetan groups are found in India,Bhutan, Nepal and further abroad. First and foremost Tibetan music isreligious music, reflecting the profound influence ofTibetan Buddhism on the culture.
Tibetan music often involveschanting inTibetan orSanskrit, as an integral part of the religion. These chants are complex, often recitations ofsacred texts or in celebration of various festivals.Yang chanting, performed without metrical timing, is accompanied by resonant drums and low, sustained syllables. Other styles include those unique to the various schools of Tibetan Buddhism, such as the classical music of the popularGelugpa school, and the romantic music of theNyingmapa,Sakyapa andKagyupa schools.[132]
Nangma dance music is especially popular in thekaraoke bars of the urban center of Tibet,Lhasa. Another form of popular music is the classicalgar style, which is performed at rituals and ceremonies. Lu are a type of songs that feature glottal vibrations and high pitches. There are also epic bards who sing ofGesar, who is a hero to ethnic Tibetans.
Tibet has various festivals, many for worshipping the Buddha,[133] that take place throughout the year.Losar is the Tibetan New Year Festival. Preparations for the festive event are manifested by special offerings to family shrine deities, painted doors with religious symbols, and other painstaking jobs done to prepare for the event. Tibetans eatGuthuk (barley noodle soup with filling) on New Year's Eve with their families. TheMonlam Prayer Festival follows it in the first month of theTibetan calendar, falling between the fourth and the eleventh days of the first Tibetan month. It involves dancing and participating in sports events, as well as sharing picnics. The event was established in 1049 by Tsong Khapa, the founder of the Dalai Lama and the Panchen Lama's order.
The most important crop in Tibet isbarley, and dough made from barley flour—calledtsampa—is thestaple food of Tibet. This is either rolled into noodles or made into steamed dumplings calledmomos. Meat dishes are likely to beyak, goat, ormutton, often dried, or cooked into a spicystew with potatoes.Mustard seed is cultivated in Tibet, and therefore features heavily in its cuisine. Yakyogurt, butter and cheese are frequently eaten, and well-prepared yogurt is considered something of a prestige item.Butter tea is a very popular drink.
^Wang, Lixiong (2005). "Indirect Representation Versus a Democratic System Relative Advantages for Resolving the Tibet". In Sautman, Barry; Teufel Dryer, June (eds.).Contemporary Tibet: Politics, Development and Society in a Disputed Region. Routledge. p. 114....the whole of Tibet, sometimes called Greater Tibet.
^Goldstein, Melvyn, C., Change, Conflict and Continuity among a Community of Nomadic Pastoralist: A Case Study from Western Tibet, 1950–1990, 1994: "What is Tibet? – Fact and Fancy", pp. 76–87
^Clark, Gregory, "In fear of China", 1969, saying: 'Tibet, although enjoying independence at certain periods of its history, had never been recognized by any single foreign power as an independent state. The closest it has ever come to such recognition was the British formula of 1943:suzerainty, combined withautonomy and the right to enter into diplomatic relations. '
^Lee, Peter (May 7, 2011)."Tibet's only hope lies within". The Asia Times.Archived from the original on December 28, 2011. RetrievedMay 10, 2011.Robin [alias of a young Tibetan in Qinghai] described the region as a cauldron of tension.Tibetans still were infuriated by numerous arrests in the wake of the 2008 protests. But local Tibetans had not organized themselves. 'They are very angry at the Chinese government and the Chinese people,' Robin said. 'But they have no idea what to do. There is no leader. When a leader appears and somebody helps out they will all join.' We ... heard tale after tale of civil disobedience in outlyinghamlets. In one village, Tibetans burned their Chinese flags and hoisted the banned Tibetan Snow Lion flag instead. Authorities ... detained nine villagers ... One nomad ... said 'After I die ... my sons and grandsons will remember. They will hate the government.'
^Étienne de la Vaissière, "The Triple System of Orography in Ptolemy's Xinjiang",Exegisti Monumenta: Festschrif in Honour of Nicholas Sims-Williams, eds. Werner Sundermann, Almut Hintze & François de Blois (Wiesbaden, Germany: Harrassowitz, 2009), 532.
^The wordTibet was used in the context of the first British mission to this country underGeorge Bogle in 1774.SeeMarkham, Clements R., ed. [1876] 1971.Narratives of the Mission of George Bogle to Tibet and the Journey of Thomas Manning to Lhasa. New Delhi: Manjushri Publishing House.
^Haarh, Erik:Extract from "The Yar Lun Dynasty", in:The History of Tibet, ed. Alex McKay, Vol. 1, London 2003, p. 147; Richardson, Hugh:The Origin of the Tibetan Kingdom, in:The History of Tibet, ed. Alex McKay, Vol. 1, London 2003, p. 159 (and list of kings p. 166-167).
^Forbes, Andrew; Henley, David (2011). 'The First Tibetan Empire' in:China's Ancient Tea Horse Road. Chiang Mai: Cognoscenti Books. ASIN: B005DQV7Q2
^Wylie. p.104: 'To counterbalance the political power of the lama, Khubilai appointed civil administrators at the Sa-skya to supervise the mongol regency.'
^Kychanov, E.I. and Melnichenko, B.I. Istoriya Tibeta s drevneishikh vremen do nashikh dnei [History of Tibet since Ancient Times to Present]. Moscow: Russian Acad. Sci. Publ., p.89-92
^Wang Jiawei, "The Historical Status of China's Tibet", 2000, p. 150.
^Fisher, Margaret W.; Rose, Leo E.; Huttenback, Robert A. (1963),Himalayan Battleground: Sino-Indian Rivalry in Ladakh, Praeger, pp. 77–78 – via archive.org,By refusing to sign it, however, the Chinese lost an opportunity to become the acknowledged suzerain of Tibet. The Tibetans were therefore free to make their own agreement with the British.
^National Geophysical Data Center, 1999. Global Land One-kilometer Base Elevation (GLOBE) v.1. Hastings, D. and P.K. Dunbar.National Geophysical Data Center, NOAAArchived February 10, 2011, at theWayback Machine. doi:10.7289/V52R3PMS [access date: March 16, 2015]
^Amante, C. and B.W. Eakins, 2009. ETOPO1 1 Arc-Minute Global Relief Model: Procedures, Data Sources and Analysis. NOAA Technical Memorandum NESDIS NGDC-24.National Geophysical Data Center, NOAAArchived June 26, 2015, at theWayback Machine. doi:10.7289/V5C8276M [access date: March 18, 2015].
^Xu Mingxu, "Intrugues and Devoutness", Brampton, p. 134,ISBN1-896745-95-4
^The 14th Dalai Lama affirmed that Tibetans within the TAR have never paid taxes to the Central People's Government,seeDonnet, Pierre-Antoine [fr], "Tibet mort ou vif", 1994, p104 [Taiwan edition],ISBN957-13-1040-9
^Graham Sanderg, The Exploration of Tibet: History and Particulars (Delhi: Cosmo Publications, 1973), pp. 23–26; Thomas Holdich, Tibet, The Mysterious (London:Alston Rivers, 1906), p. 70.
^Sir Edward Maclagan, The Jesuits and The Great Mogul (London: Burns, Oates & Washbourne Ltd., 1932), pp. 344–345.
^Lettera del P. Alano Dos Anjos al Provinciale di Goa, 10 Novembre 1627, quoted from Wu Kunming, Zaoqi Chuanjiaoshi jin Zang Huodongshi (Beijing: Zhongguo Zangxue chubanshe, 1992), p. 163.
^Extensively using Italian and Portuguese archival materials, Wu's work gives a detailed account of Cacella's activities in Tsang. See Zaoqi Chuanjiaoshi jin Zang Huodongshi, esp. chapter 5.
^Narratives of the Mission of George Bogle to Tibet, and of the Journey of Thomas Manning to Lhasa, pp. 295–302. Clements R. Markham. (1876). Reprint Cosmo Publications, New Delhi. 1989.
^Lettera del P. Antonio de Andrade. Giovanni de Oliveira. Alano Dos Anjos al Provinciale di Goa, 29 Agosto, 1627, quoted from Wu, Zaoqi Chuanjiaoshi jin Zang Huodongshi, p. 196; Maclagan, The Jesuits and The Great Mogul, pp. 347–348.
^Cornelius Wessels, Early Jesuit Travellers in Central Asia, 1603–1721 (The Hague: Nijhoff, 1924), pp. 80–85.
^Maclagan, The Jesuits and The Great Mogul, pp. 349–352;Filippo De Filippi ed., An Account of Tibet, pp. 13–17.
^Relação da Missão do Reino de Uçangue Cabeça dos do Potente, Escrita pello P. João Cabral da Comp. de Jesu. fol. 1, quoted from Wu, Zaoqi Chuanjiaoshi jin Zang Huodongshi, pp. 294–297; Wang Yonghong, "Luelun Tianzhujiao zai Xizang di Zaoqi Huodong", Xizang Yanjiu, 1989, No. 3, pp. 62–63.
^Crossley-Holland, Peter. (1976). "The Ritual Music of Tibet."The Tibet Journal. Vol. 1, Nos. 3 & 4, Autumn 1976, pp. 47–53.
^Chiley Chudza (2007). "A Brief Introduction of Tibet Seasonal Festival Folklore - CNKI"西藏岁时节日民俗概述 [A Brief Introduction of Tibet Seasonal Festival Folklore].Journal of Tibet University (Chinese Version) (in Chinese) (2):26–32.doi:10.16249/j.cnki.1005-5738.2007.02.006.
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