Tiberius Julius Caesar Augustus[b] (/taɪˈbɪəriəs/ty-BEER-ee-əs; 16 November 42 BC – 16 March AD 37) wasRoman emperor from AD 14 until 37. He succeeded his stepfatherAugustus, the first Roman emperor. Tiberius was born inRome in 42 BC to Roman politicianTiberius Claudius Nero and his wife,Livia Drusilla. In 38 BC, Tiberius's mother divorced his father and married Augustus. Following the untimely deaths of Augustus's two grandsons and adopted heirs,Gaius andLucius Caesar, Tiberius was designated Augustus's successor. Prior to this, Tiberius had proved himself an able diplomat and one of the most successfulRoman generals. His conquests ofPannonia,Dalmatia,Raetia, and (temporarily) parts ofGermania laid the foundations forthe empire's northern frontier.
Early in his career, Tiberius was happily married toVipsania, daughter of Augustus's friend, distinguished general and intended heir,Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa. They had a son,Drusus Julius Caesar. After Agrippa died, Augustus insisted that Tiberius divorce Vipsania and marry Agrippa's widow, Augustus' own daughter (Tiberius's step-sister)Julia. Tiberius reluctantly gave in. This second marriage proved scandalous, deeply unhappy, and childless; ultimately, Julia was sent into exile by her father. Tiberius adopted his nephew, the able and popularGermanicus, as heir. On Augustus's death in 14, Tiberius becameprinceps at the age of 55. He seems to have taken on the responsibilities of head of state with great reluctance and perhaps a genuine sense of inadequacy in the role, compared to the capable, self-confident and charismatic Augustus.
From the outset, Tiberius had a difficult, resentful relationship with theSenate and suspected many plots against him. Nevertheless, he proved to be an effective and efficient administrator. After the deaths of his nephew Germanicus in AD 19 and his son Drusus in 23, Tiberius became reclusive and aloof. In 26 he removed himself from Rome and left administration largely in the hands of his ambitiouspraetorian prefectSejanus, whom he later had executed for treason, and then Sejanus's replacement,Macro. When Tiberius died, he was succeeded by his grand-nephew and adopted grandson, Germanicus's sonCaligula, whose lavish building projects and varyingly successful military endeavours drained much of the wealth that Tiberius had accumulated in the public and Imperial coffers through good management.
Tiberius allowed the worship of hisdivineGenius in only one temple, in Rome's eastern provinces, and promoted restraint in the empire-wide cult to the deceased Augustus. When Tiberius died, he was given a sumptuous funeral befitting his office, but no divine honours. He came to be remembered as a dark, reclusive and sombre ruler who never really wanted to be emperor;Pliny the Elder called him "the gloomiest of men".[4][5]
Tiberius was born inRome on 16 November 42 BC toTiberius Claudius Nero andLivia Drusilla.[6] Both of his biological parents belonged to thegens Claudia, an ancientpatrician family that came to prominence in the early years of the republic.[7] His mother was also a member of theLivii family, an ancientplebeian but prominent family, through the adoption into it of his maternal grandfather.[8] Little is recorded of Tiberius's early life. In 39 BC, his mother divorced his biological father and, despite being pregnant again by Tiberius Nero, marriedOctavian, later known as Augustus. In 38 BC his brother,Nero Claudius Drusus, was born.[9] In 32 BC, Tiberius, at the age of nine, delivered the eulogy for his biological father at therostra. In 29 BC, he rode next to the triumphal chariot of his adoptive father Octavian in celebration of thedefeat of Antony and Cleopatra at Actium.[10]
In 23 BC, Augustus became gravely ill, and his possible death threatened to plunge the Roman world into even more civil conflict. Historians generally agree that it is during this time that the question of Augustus's heir became most acute, and while Augustus had seemed to indicate thatAgrippa andMarcellus would carry on his position in the event of his death, the ambiguity of succession became Augustus's chief problem.[11] In response, a series of potential heirs seem to have been selected, among them Tiberius and his brother Drusus. In 24 BC, at the age of seventeen, Tiberius entered politics under Augustus's direction, receiving the position ofquaestor,[12] and was granted the right to stand for election aspraetor andconsul five years in advance of the age required by law.[13] Similar provisions were made for Drusus.[14]
Shortly thereafter Tiberius began appearing in court as an advocate, and it was presumably at this time that his interest in Greekrhetoric began. In 20 BC, Tiberius went east to joinAugustus.[15] TheParthian Empire had previously captured thestandards of thelegions under the command ofMarcus Licinius Crassus (53 BC) (at theBattle of Carrhae), Decidius Saxa (40 BC), andMark Antony (36 BC) and, after negotiations with Parthia's KingPhraates IV, either Augustus[15] or Tiberius,[16] or perhaps both together, were able to reclaim them for Rome. Tiberius then led a sizeable force intoArmenia, presumably to establish it as a Romanclient state and end the threat it posed on the Roman-Parthian border. Augustus was able to reach a compromise whereby the standards were returned, and Armenia remained a neutral territory between the two powers.[13]
Tiberius marriedVipsania Agrippina, the daughter of Augustus's close friend and most famed general,Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa.[17] He was appointed to the position ofpraetor, and was sent with his legions to assist his brother Drusus in campaigns in the west. While Drusus focused his forces inGallia Narbonensis and along the German frontier, Tiberius combated the tribes in theAlps and withinTransalpine Gaul,conquering Raetia. In 15 BC he discovered the sources of theDanube, and soon afterward the bend of the middle course.[18] Returning to Rome in 13 BC, Tiberius was appointed asconsul, and around this same time his son,Drusus Julius Caesar, was born.[19]
Agrippa's death in 12 BC elevated Tiberius and Drusus with respect to the succession. At Augustus's request in 11 BC, Tiberius divorced Vipsania and marriedJulia the Elder, Augustus's daughter and Agrippa's widow. Tiberius was very reluctant to do this, as Julia had made advances to him when she was married, and Tiberius was happily married. His new marriage with Julia was happy at first, but turned sour. Suetonius claims that when Tiberius ran into Vipsania again, he followed her home crying and begging forgiveness.[17] Soon afterwards, Tiberius met with Augustus, and steps were taken to ensure that Tiberius and Vipsania would never meet again.[20] Tiberius continued to be elevated by Augustus, and after Agrippa's death and his brother Drusus's death in 9 BC, seemed the clear candidate for succession. As such, in 12 BC he received military commissions inPannonia andGermania, both areas highly volatile and of key importance to Augustan policy.
In 6 BC, Tiberius launched apincer movement against theMarcomanni. Setting out northwest fromCarnuntum on the Danube with four legions, Tiberius passed throughQuadi territory in order to invade Marcomanni territory from the east. Meanwhile, generalGaius Sentius Saturninus would depart east fromMoguntiacum on theRhine with two or three legions, pass through newly annexedHermunduri territory, and attack the Marcomanni from the west. The campaign was a resounding success, but Tiberius could not subjugate the Marcomanni because he was soon summoned to the Rhine frontier to protect Rome's new conquests in Germania. He returned to Rome and was consul for a second time in 7 BC, and in 6 BC was grantedtribunician power (tribunicia potestas) and control in the East,[21] positions that Agrippa had held before him.
In 6 BC, while on the verge of accepting command in the East and becoming the second-most powerful man in Rome, Tiberius announced his withdrawal from politics and retired toRhodes.[22] The motives for Tiberius's withdrawal are unclear.[23] Some historians have speculated that Tiberius and Drusus were only ever intended as caretakers, and would have been swept aside once Julia's two sons by Agrippa,Gaius andLucius, were adopted as Augustus's heirs and came of age.[24] The promiscuous, and very public behaviour of his unhappily married wife, Julia,[25] may have also played a part.[21] Tacitus understood this to be Tiberius's innermost reason for moving to Rhodes, a reflection of his hatred of Julia and his longing for Vipsania.[26] Tiberius, forbidden to see the woman he loved, found himself married to a woman he loathed, and publicly humiliated by her nighttime escapades in theRoman Forum.[27]
Whatever Tiberius's motives, his withdrawal was almost disastrous for Augustus's succession plans. Gaius and Lucius were still in their early teens, and Augustus, now 57 years old, had no immediate successor. There was no longer a guarantee of apeaceful transfer of power after Augustus's death, nor a guarantee that his family, and therefore his family's allies, would continue to hold power should the position ofPrinceps survive.[27] Somewhat melodramatic stories tell of Augustus pleading with Tiberius to stay, even going so far as to stage a serious illness.[27] Tiberius's response was to anchor off the shore ofOstia until word came that Augustus had survived, then sailing straightway for Rhodes.[28] Tiberius reportedly regretted his departure and requested to return to Rome several times, but each time Augustus refused his requests.[29]
In AD 1 Augustus sent his stepson Tiberius to subdue the Germanic tribes on the Rhine frontier. In his campaigns, Tiberius eventually extended the Roman border as far as theElbe but was forced to cancel plans to conquer the SuevicMarcomanni whenrevolt broke out in Illyria in AD 6.[30]
With Tiberius's departure, succession rested solely on Augustus's two young grandsons, Lucius and Gaius Caesar. The situation became more precarious in AD 2 with the death of Lucius. Augustus, with perhaps some pressure from Livia, allowed Tiberius to return to Rome as a private citizen and nothing more.[31] In AD 4, Gaius was killed in Armenia, and Augustus had no other choice but to turn to Tiberius.[32][33] The death of Gaius initiated a flurry of activity in the household of Augustus. Tiberius was adopted in 26 June as full son and heir,[34] and in turn he was required to adopt his nephewGermanicus, the son of his brotherNero Claudius Drusus and Augustus's nieceAntonia Minor.[32][35] Along with his adoption, Tiberius receivedtribunician power as well as a share of Augustus'smaius imperium, something that even Marcus Agrippa may never have had.[36][37] In AD 7,Agrippa Postumus, a younger brother of Gaius and Lucius, was disowned by Augustus and banished to the island ofPianosa, to live in solitary confinement.[33][38]
Thus, when in AD 13, the powers held by Tiberius were made equal, rather than second, to Augustus's own powers, he was for all intents and purposes a "co-Princeps" with Augustus, and, in the event of the latter's passing, would simply continue to rule without aninterregnum or possible upheaval.[39]
However, according toSuetonius, after a two-year stint in Germania, which lasted from AD 10–12,[40]
"Tiberius returned and celebrated the triumph which he had postponed, accompanied also by his generals, for whom he had obtained the triumphal regalia. And before turning to enter the Capitol, he dismounted from his chariot and fell at the knees of his father, who was presiding over the ceremonies."[41] "Since the consuls caused a law to be passed soon after this that he should govern the provinces jointly with Augustus and hold the census with him, he set out forIllyricum on the conclusion of thelustral ceremonies."[36]
Thus, according to Suetonius, these ceremonies and the declaration of his "co-Princeps" took place in the year AD 12, after Tiberius's return from Germania.[40] "But he was at once recalled, and finding Augustus in his last illness but still alive, he spent an entire day with him in private."[36] Augustus died on 19 August AD 14, a month before his 76th birthday and exactly 56 years after he first assumed theconsulship.[42][43][44] He was cremated with all due ceremony and, as had been arranged beforehand,deified, his will read, and Tiberius, now a middle-aged man at 55, was confirmed as his sole surviving heir.[45] Tiberius peacefully took power, unchallenged by any rivals.[46]
On 17 September Tiberius called theSenate in order to validate his position asPrinceps, and, as hadAugustus before him, grant himself its powers.[47][48][49] Tiberius already had the administrative and political powers of thePrinceps, but he lacked the titles ofAugustus andPater Patriae ("Father of the country"), and refused theCivic Crown.[c] Like Augustus before him, Tiberius may have sought to represent himself as a reluctant yet devoted public servant, no more than an ordinary citizen who wanted to serve the state and people to the best of his ability,[50] but his refusal of these titular, quasi-religious honours, and his reluctance to accept the full powers of aprinceps were taken as insults to the elite who offered them; signs of hypocrisy, not humility. According to Tacitus, Tiberius derided the Senate as "men fit to be slaves".[51][52] Antagonism between Tiberius and his senate seems to have been a feature of his rule.[53] In his first few years as emperor, Tiberius seems to have wanted the Senate to act alone, with no reference to him or his responsibilities as "first Senator".[54] His direct orders were rather vague, inspiring debates on what he actually meant, rather than passing his legislation.[55]
A bust of the adopted son of Tiberius,Germanicus, from theLouvre, Paris
The Roman legions in Pannonia and Germania had not been paid the bonuses promised to them by Augustus, and showed early signs of mutiny when it was clear that a response from Tiberius was not forthcoming.[56]
Germanicus and Tiberius's son,Drusus Julius Caesar, were dispatched with a small force to quell the uprising and bring the legions back in line. Germanicus took charge of the mutinous troops and led them on a short campaign across the Rhine into Germanic territory, promising that whatever treasure they could grab would count as their bonus.[57] Germanicus's forces took over all the territory between the Rhine and theElbe. They took control of theTeutoburg forest, where three Roman legions and their auxiliary cohorts, led byPublius Quinctilius Varus,had been annihilated by Germanic tribes several years before. Germanicus took back the legionarystandards lost in that disaster, saving them from the disgrace of captivity.[58][59] These bold and successful actions increased Germanicus's already high popular standing.[60] After his return to Rome, Germanicus was awarded a fulltriumph, which he celebrated in AD 17. It was the first full triumph held since Augustus's own in 29 BC.[61][59]
In AD 18 Germanicus was granted control over the eastern part of the empire, like Agrippa and Tiberius before him. This was interpreted as a sign that he would be Tiberius's successor;[62] but Germanicus died just over a year later, having accusedGnaeus Calpurnius Piso, the governor of Syria, of poisoning him.[63]
The Pisones had been longtime supporters of the Claudians, and had allied themselves with the young Octavian after his marriage to Livia, the mother of Tiberius. Germanicus's death and accusations indicted the newPrinceps. Piso was placed on trial and, according to Tacitus, threatened to implicate Tiberius.[64] Whether the governor actually could connect thePrinceps to the death of Germanicus is unknown; rather than continuing to stand trial when it became evident that the Senate was against him, Piso committed suicide.[65][66]
In AD 22, Tiberius shared his tribunician authority with his son Drusus,[67] and began making yearly excursions to Campania that reportedly became longer and longer every year. In AD 23, Drusus died in mysterious circumstances,[68][69] and Tiberius seems to have made no effort to elevate a replacement. In AD 26, Tiberius moved to an imperial villa-complex he had inherited from Augustus, on the island ofCapri. It was just off the coast of Campania, which was a traditional holiday retreat for Rome's upper classes, particularly those who valued cultured leisure and a Hellenised lifestyle.[70][71]
Lucius Aelius Sejanus had served the imperial family for almost twenty years when he becamePraetorian Prefect in AD 15. As Tiberius became more embittered with the position ofPrinceps, he began to depend more and more upon the limited secretariat left to him by Augustus, and specifically upon Sejanus and the Praetorians. In AD 17 or 18, Tiberius had trimmed the ranks of thePraetorian Guard responsible for the defence of the city, and had moved it from encampments outside of the city wallsinto the city itself,[72] giving Sejanus access to somewhere between 6000 and 9000 troops.
The death of Drusus elevated Sejanus, at least in the eyes of Tiberius, who thereafter refers to him as hisSocius Laborum (Partner of my labours). Tiberius had statues of Sejanus erected throughout the city,[73][74] and Sejanus became more and more visible as Tiberius began to withdraw from Rome altogether. Eventually, with Tiberius's withdrawal in AD 26, Sejanus was left in charge of the entire state mechanism and the city of Rome.[71]
Sejanus's position was not quite that of successor; he had requested marriage in AD 25 to Tiberius's niece,Livilla, though under pressure quickly withdrew the request.[75] While Sejanus'sPraetorians controlled the imperial postal service, and therefore the information that Tiberius received from Rome and the information Rome received from Tiberius,[76]Livia may have checked Sejanus' overt powers, until her death in AD 29.[77]
Sejanus began a series of purge trials of Senators and wealthy equestrians (such asCurtius Atticus) in the city of Rome, removing those capable of opposing his power as well as extending the imperial (and his own) treasury. Germanicus's widowAgrippina the Elder and two of her sons,Nero Julius Caesar andDrusus Caesar, were arrested and exiled in AD 30 and later all died in suspicious circumstances. In Sejanus's purge of Agrippina the Elder and her family,Caligula,Agrippina the Younger,Julia Drusilla, andJulia Livilla were the only survivors.[78]
Ruins from theVilla Jovis on the island ofCapri, where Tiberius spent much of his final years, leaving control of the empire in the hands of the prefectLucius Aelius Sejanus.
In 31, Sejanus held the consulship with Tiberiusin absentia,[79] and began his play for power in earnest. Precisely what happened is difficult to determine, but Sejanus seems to have covertly attempted to court those families who were tied to the Julians and attempted to ingratiate himself with the Julian family line to place himself, as an adopted Julian, in the position ofPrinceps, or as a possibleregent.[79]Livilla was later implicated in this plot and was revealed to have been Sejanus's lover for several years.[80]
The plot seems to have involved the two of them overthrowing Tiberius, with the support of the Julians, and either assuming thePrincipate themselves, or serving as regent to the youngTiberius Gemellus or possibly evenCaligula.[81] Those who stood in his way were tried for treason and swiftly dealt with.[81]
In AD 31 Sejanus was summoned to a meeting of the Senate, where a letter from Tiberius was read condemning Sejanus and ordering his immediate execution. Sejanus was tried, and he and several of his colleagues were executed within the week. As commander of the Praetorian Guard, he was replaced byNaevius Sutorius Macro.[82]
Tacitus claims that more treason trials followed and that whereas Tiberius had been hesitant to act at the outset of his reign, now, towards the end of his life, he seemed to do so without compunction. The hardest hit were those families with political ties to the Julians. Even the imperial magistracy was hit, as any and all who had associated with Sejanus or could in some way be tied to his schemes were summarily tried and executed, their properties seized by the state. According to Tacitus;
Executions were now a stimulus to his fury, and he ordered the death of all who were lying in prison under accusation of complicity with Sejanus. There lay, singly or in heaps, the unnumbered dead, of every age and sex, the illustrious with the obscure. Kinsfolk and friends were not allowed to be near them, to weep over them, or even to gaze on them too long. Spies were set round them, who noted the sorrow of each mourner and followed the rotting corpses, till they were dragged to the Tiber, where, floating or driven on the bank, no one dared to burn or to touch them.[83]
Tacitus's extravagant portrayal of a tyrannical, vengeful emperor has been challenged by some historians:Edward Togo Salmon notes inA History of the Roman World:
In the whole twenty two years of Tiberius's reign, not more than fifty-two persons were accused of treason, of whom almost half escaped conviction, while the four innocent people to be condemned fell victims to the excessive zeal of the Senate, not to the emperor's tyranny.[84]
While Tiberius was in Capri, rumours abounded as to what exactly he was doing there. Suetonius records the rumours of lurid tales of sexual perversity, including graphic depictions of child molestation, cruelty,[85] and most of all his paranoia.[86] While heavily sensationalised,[87] Suetonius's stories at least paint a picture of how Tiberius was perceived by the Roman senatorial class, and what his impact on the Principate was during his 23 years of rule.
Adenarius of Tiberius. Caption: TI. CAESAR DIVI AVG. F. AVGVSTVS
The affair of Sejanus and the final years of treason trials permanently damaged Tiberius's image and reputation. After Sejanus's fall, Tiberius's withdrawal from Rome was complete; the empire continued to run under the inertia of the bureaucracy established by Augustus, rather than through the leadership of thePrinceps.Suetonius records that he becameparanoid,[86] and spent a great deal of time brooding over the death of his son. During this period there was a short invasion byParthia, and incursions on Roman territories byDacian and Germanic tribes.[88]
Little was done to plan or secure Tiberius'ssuccession. The Julians and their supporters were diminished in numbers and political influence, thanks to Sejanus, and Tiberius's immediate heirs were dead.Caligula, the sole surviving son of Germanicus, or Tiberius's own grandson,Tiberius Gemellus, were possibly candidates.[89] However, Tiberius only made a half-hearted attempt at the end of his life to make Caligula aquaestor, and thus give him some credibility as a possible successor, while Gemellus himself was still only a teenager and thus completely unsuitable for some years to come.[90]
Tiberius died inMisenum on 16 March AD 37, months before his 78th birthday.[91] While ancient sources agree on the date and location of his death, contradictory accounts exist of the precise circumstances.
Tacitus relates that the emperor appeared to have stopped breathing, and that Caligula, who was at Tiberius's villa, was being congratulated on his succession to the empire, when news arrived that the emperor had revived and was recovering his faculties. He goes on to report that those who had moments before recognized Caligula as Augustus fled in fear of the emperor's wrath, while Macro took advantage of the chaos to have Tiberius smothered with his own bedclothes.[91]
Suetonius reports that, upon recovering after an illness, and finding himself deserted by his attendants, Tiberius attempted to rise from his couch, but fell dead. Suetonius further reports several rumours, including that the emperor had been poisoned by Caligula, starved, and smothered with a pillow.[92]Seneca the Elder also reports Tiberius having died a natural death.[93]
According toCassius Dio, Caligula, fearing that the emperor would recover, refused Tiberius's requests for food, insisting that he needed warmth, not food; then, assisted by Macro, he smothered the emperor in his bedclothes.[94][d][e]
Neither Josephus, Pliny, nor Philo relate the story of Tiberius's suffocation, stating simply the date of his death and/or the length of his reign. Modern medical analysis has concluded Tiberius most likely died as a result ofmyocardial infarction.[96][97]
After his death, the Senate refused to vote Tiberius the divine honours that had been paid to Augustus, and mobs filled the streets yelling "To theTiber with Tiberius!" (the bodies of criminals were typically thrown into the river, instead of being buried or burnt).[98] However, the emperor was cremated, and his ashes were placed in theMausoleum of Augustus.[99]
Suetonius describes Tiberius as being pale skinned, broad shouldered,left-handed, and exceptionally strong and tall for a Roman, although he had poor posture.[f] Suetonius and Paterculus both write that he was beautiful in his youth.[103][104][verification needed] Even in adulthood, he was prone to severeacne outbreaks. He wore his hair cut short at the front and sides but long in the back so it covered the nape of his neck in a style similar to themullet, which Suetonius claims was a family tradition of the Claudian gens.[103] This assertion is confirmed by busts of other Claudian men, who were depicted with the same hairstyle.[105] Suetonius describes his eyes as being larger than average,[103] while a passage in Pliny indicates they were grey or blue-grey;[106]polychromy restoration on a bust of Tiberius depict him with grey eyes and hair.[107] Suetonius reports he tended totalk with his hands, a habit others found unnerving, and which Augustus saw as an inherent character flaw.[103]
Both Cassius Dio and Tacitus record that by the time he became Emperor, Tiberius had gone bald. Tacitus further reports that the Emperor had lost most of his body fat and become abnormally thin, although he retained his physical strength. He also contracted a disfiguring facial ailment which may have been a severe case ofherpes, an outbreak of which affected the Empire during his reign; Tiberius banned kissing at public functions in an effort to curtail its spread.[108][109][110][111] Tacitus believed that embarrassment over his baldness and the disfigurement of his face may have been contributing factors to his retreat to Capri, and noted that he regularly attempted to cover his sores withplaster.[dubious –discuss] Despite this, Suetonius reports that Tiberius enjoyed good general health for the duration of his reign.[103] Late in life he suffered from a poor pulse,[112] which modern scholars believe may have been a sign ofheart disease.[113] Shortly before his death, he suffered an injury to his back while killing a boar with ajavelin to open soldiers' games, which severely limited his mobility in his final days.[112]
Since the 20th century, much scholarship has been dedicated to Tiberius's psychological profile. Modern assessments tend to agree that he likely suffered from lifelongmajor depressive disorder. Additionally, while wine consumption was a regular part of Roman life, contemporary sources note he consumed more than was considered healthy by Roman standards; in the legions he earned the nickname "Biberius" (frombibere, "to drink"). This has led modern writers to conclude he probably suffered fromalcoholism.[114] As the Julio-Claudian Emperor who saw the most frontlines combat, and the one who actually led troops into battle, modern writers have concluded Tiberus' erratic and paranoid behavior later in life, as well as his alcohol intake, may have been the result ofpost-traumatic stress disorder. Proponents of this theory believe the tales of Tiberius's lurid sexual exploits were contemporary exaggerations ofsexual compulsivity as a means of coping with untreated trauma.[115] Other modern diagnoses offered for Tiberius includeobsessive compulsive personality disorder andSchizoid personality disorder; the latter diagnoses was offered byGregorio Marañón in a book-length psychological assessment of the Emperor, which further argued he suffered from some kind ofanxiety disorder.[116]
Had he died before AD 23, he might have been hailed as an exemplary ruler.[117] Despite the overwhelmingly negative characterisation left by Roman historians, Tiberius left the imperialtreasury with nearly 3 billionsesterces upon his death.[101][118] Rather than embark on costly campaigns of conquest, he chose to strengthen the existing empire by building additional bases, using diplomacy as well as military threats, and generally refraining from getting drawn into petty squabbles between competing frontier tyrants.[72] The result was a stronger, more consolidated empire, ensuring the imperial institutions introduced by his adoptive father would remain for centuries to come.[119]
The most detailed account of this period was written byTacitus, whoseAnnals dedicate the first six books entirely to the reign of Tiberius. Tacitus was a Roman senator, born during the reign ofNero in AD 56, andconsul suffectus in AD 97. His text is largely based on theActa Senatus (the minutes of the session of the Senate) and theActa Diurna (a collection of the acts of the government and news of the court and capital), as well as speeches by Tiberius himself, and the histories of contemporaries such asMarcus Cluvius Rufus,Fabius Rusticus andPliny the Elder (all of which are lost). Tacitus's narrative emphasises both political and psychological motivation. His characterisation of Tiberius throughout the first six books is mostly negative, and gradually worsens as his rule declines, identifying a clear breaking point with the death of his sonDrusus in AD 23.[117]
Tacitus describes Julio-Claudian rule as generally unjust and "criminal";[121] he attributes the apparent virtues of Tiberius during his early reign to hypocrisy.[91]Another major recurring theme concerns the balance of power between the Senate and the emperors, corruption, and the growingtyranny among the governing classes of Rome. A substantial amount of his account on Tiberius is therefore devoted to the treason trials and persecutions following the revival of themaiestas law under Augustus.[122] Ultimately, Tacitus's opinion on Tiberius is best illustrated by his conclusion of the sixth book:
His character too had its distinct periods. It was a bright time in his life and reputation, while under Augustus he was a private citizen or held high offices; a time of reserve and crafty assumption of virtue, as long as Germanicus and Drusus were alive. Again, while his mother lived, he was a compound of good and evil; he was infamous for his cruelty, though he veiled his debaucheries, while he loved or feared Sejanus. Finally, he plunged into every wickedness and disgrace, when fear and shame being cast off, he simply indulged his own inclinations.[91]
His account is more sensationalist and anecdotal than that of his contemporary Tacitus, and delves into Tiberius's numerous alleged debaucheries while at Capri.[85] Nevertheless, Suetonius praises Tiberius's actions during his early reign, emphasising his modesty.[123]
One of the few surviving sources contemporary with the rule of Tiberius comes fromVelleius Paterculus, who served under Tiberius for eight years (from AD 4) in Germany and Pannonia aspraefect of cavalry andlegatus. Paterculus'Compendium of Roman History spans a period from the fall ofTroy to the death ofLivia in AD 29. His text on Tiberius lavishes praise on both the emperor[124] and Sejanus.[125] How much of this is due to genuine admiration or prudence remains an open question, but it has been conjectured that he was put to death in AD 31 as a friend of Sejanus.[126]
Thetribute penny mentioned in the Bible is commonly believed to be a Romandenarius depicting the emperor Tiberius. Caption: TI. CAESAR DIVI AVG. F. AVGVSTVS / MAXIM. PONTIF.
During Tiberius's reign, Jews had become more prominent in Rome and Jewish and Gentile followers of Jesus beganproselytising Roman citizens, increasing long-simmering resentments.[136] In AD 19 Tiberius ordered Jews of military age to join theRoman Army.[136] He banished the rest of Rome's Jewish population, on pain of enslavement for life.Josephus credits the banishment to a quartet of Jewish con artists – one of whom had fled prosecution in Judea for financial crimes – who successfully conspired toscam a Roman Matron out of a large quantity of money, silk, and gold, ostensibly to be sent for dedication in theSecond Temple in Jerusalem.[137][136]
There were no systematic Roman persecutions of Christians under Tiberius afterChrist's crucifixion.[138] Jossa finds it "unthinkable" that Tiberius was aware of Christianity as a faith separate from Judaism.[136] Most scholars believe that Roman distinction between Jews and Christians began in the 40s, in Caligula's reign, and was complete by around AD 70 (the destruction of Jerusalem).[136]
Extent of the Roman Empire under Tiberius
The early Christian Church's view of Tiberius has generally been favourable. The 2nd-3rd Century ChristianapologistTertullian said Tiberius approached the Senate with a request to acknowledge Christ as adeity, citing evidence of hismiracles, and his resurrection following his crucifixion. Early Church historianEusebius saidPilate reported to Tiberius of the resurrection of Christ. Tiberius is said to have taken Pilate's report to the Senate.[139] Tiberius had to be content with the protection of Christians from malicious prosecution by senators;St. Jerome adds that this was under the penalty of death. Both he andEusebius included Tertullian's account in their respective histories of the Christian Church, but no evidence of such protection survives in Roman law. Crake describes the episode as essentially a comment on deification by decree of the senate", in which few "would take seriously even Tertullian's version of events"[140][g][141] TranslatorG.A. Williamson said it "can be hardly doubted that Pilate sent such a report, but none of the extant versions is regarded as genuine".[139] TheChristian History Institute does not list Tiberius as aRoman emperor who persecuted Christians. The first Roman emperor listed isClaudius.[142][h]
Tiberius's palace in Rome was on thePalatine Hill; its ruins still stand. Tiberius built a temple in Rome to the deified Augustus, and restored thetheatre of Pompey,[145][146] these works were not finished until the reign of Caligula.[147] The remains of Tiberius's villa atSperlonga include agrotto, where the fragmentarySperlonga sculptures were found. The hill-topVilla Jovis retreat atCapri has been preserved. The estate at Capri is said by Tacitus to have included a total of twelve villas,[71] of which theVilla Jovis was the largest.
Tiberius refused to be officially worshipped as a living god. He promoted restraint in the official, empire-wide cult to the divinised Augustus, and established a priesthood, theSodales Augustales, to administer its rites. He allowed a single temple to honour both his owngenius and that of the Senate, atSmyrna.[148][149]
Tiberius has been represented in fiction, in literature, film and television, and in video games, often as a peripheral character in the central storyline. The following is a list of appearances Tiberius made in popular culture.
In the 1968ITV historical dramaThe Caesars, Tiberius (byAndré Morell) is the central character for much of the series and is portrayed in a much more balanced way than inI, Claudius.
In the TV seriesRoman Empire, Tiberius was portrayed by Craig Walsh-Wrightson. In the 2021 TV seriesDomina, he was played byEarl Cave; adult Tiberius was played byBenjamin Isaac.
The theft of the Gold Tiberius, an unintentionally unique commemorative coin commissioned by Tiberius which is stated to have achieved legendary status in the centuries hence, from a mysterious triad of occultists drives the plot of the framing story inArthur Machen's 1895 novelThe Three Impostors.
Tiberius married twice, first to the daughter ofAgrippa,Vipsania Agrippina. His second marriage was after Agrippa's death toAugustus' daughter,Julia the Elder. Only his marriage with Agrippina produced a child who survived to adulthood, known asDrusus Julius Caesar (15–13 BC – AD 23). His marriage with Julia produced a child who died in infancy.[154][155]
^ A crown made fromlaurel andoak. It had been awarded to Augustus for "saving the lives of Roman citizens".
^Dio states that Tiberius died on the "twenty-sixth day of March. He had lived seventy-seven years, four months, and nine days, of which time he had been emperor twenty-two years, seven months, and seven days." Dio's calculations are accurate, but the number "26" is a mistake for "16".[94]
^Josephus states that "Tiberius died, after he had reigned twenty-two years, six months, and three days."[95] Tiberius actually ruled 22 years, 6 months, and 25 days reckoning from Augustus's death.
^At the time Suetonius was writing, the average Roman man would have been about five foot six.[102]
^The 20th-century Canadian historian J.E.A. Crake (1911–1983) said in 1963 at an annual meeting of the Classical Association of Canada that few "would take seriously even Tertullian's version of events" and that its "combination of legal inconsistency would have inspired a couple of pages of sarcasm from Tertullian."[140]
^According to theChristian History Institute from "AD 30 to AD 311, a period in which 54 emperors ruled the Empire, only about a dozen took the trouble to harass Christians. Furthermore, not until Decius (249–251) did any deliberately attempt an Empire-wide persecution. Until then, persecution came mainly at the instigation of local rulers, albeit with Rome's approval."[142]
^For the debate over whether Agrippa'simperium after 13 BC wasmaius oraequum, see, e.g.,E. Badian (1980)."Notes on theLaudatio of Agrippa".Classical Journal.76 (2): 97–109 [105–106].JSTOR3297371.
^Levick 1999, pp. 68–81. "The senatorial decree of 17 September was to make himDivi fiilius, son of the deified Princeps, and the will imposed the title Augustus ... Tiberius's powers lapsed on Augustus's death, required redefinition, or were surrendered on 17 September".
^Gaius Tranquillus Suetonius, Graves, R., & Grant, M. (2006).The Twelve Caesars (p. 118). Penguin."Tiberius used his Tribunician powers to convene the Senate and break the news of Augustus' death."
^Houston, George W. (1985)."Tiberius on Capri".Greece & Rome.32 (2):179–196.doi:10.1017/S0017383500030503.ISSN0017-3835.JSTOR642441.S2CID162308020.We must imagine Tiberius not as brooding in isolation (though it is true enough he was a difficult man, not to say a grouchy one), but as entertaining visitors, discussing affairs, and taking up at least the more important of the obligations imposed upon him by state and family
^Death of Tiberius: TacitusAnnals 6.50; Dio 58.28.1–4; Suetonius,Tiberius73Gaius 12.2–3; JosephusAJ 18.225. Posthumous insults: Suetonius,Tiberius75.
^Platner, Samuel Ball; Ashby, Thomas (1929)."Mausoleum Augusti".A Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome. London:Oxford University Press. pp. 332–336. Retrieved30 June 2011.
^Shaw, Millo L G (1990).Drusus Caesar, the son of Tiberius (PhD thesis). University of British Columbia.doi:10.14288/1.0100757. Dates of birth at pp. i–ii. See pp. 8, 34–38 as to Drusus Julius Caesar's birth name and pp. 214ff as to Drusus' children.
Ehrenberg, V.; Jones, A.H.M. (1955).Documents Illustrating the Reigns of Augustus and Tiberius. Oxford.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
Mason, Ernst (1960).Tiberius. New York: Ballantine Books. (Ernst Mason was a pseudonym of science fiction authorFrederik Pohl)
Mattingly, Harold (1957).Roman Imperial Civilization. New York: W W Norton & Company Inc.ISBN0-393-00572-0.{{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
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