| Theophilos | |
|---|---|
| Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans | |
.jpg) Theophilus, in theChronicle ofJohn Skylitzes | |
| Byzantine emperor | |
| Reign | 2 October 829 – 20 January 842 |
| Coronation | 12 May 821 (as co-emperor) |
| Predecessor | Michael II |
| Successor | Michael III (under the regency ofTheodora) |
| Co-emperor | Constantine (830s) |
| Born | c. late 812 – c. early 813 |
| Died | (842-01-20)20 January 842 |
| Consort | Theodora |
| Issue | Constantine Thekla Anna Anastasia Pulcheria Maria Michael III |
| Dynasty | Amorian dynasty |
| Father | Michael II |
| Mother | Thekla |
| Amorian dynasty | ||
|---|---|---|
| Chronology | ||
| ||
| Succession | ||
| ||
Theophilos (Greek:Θεόφιλος,romanized: Theóphilos, sometimesLatinised asTheophilus;c. 812 – 20 January 842) wasByzantine Emperor from 829 until his death in 842. He was the second emperor of theAmorian dynasty and the last emperor to supporticonoclasm.
Theophilos was well-educated in the imperial household. Upon his accession to the throne he faced the dual threat of theAbbasid Caliphate inAsia Minor and theAghlabids inSicily, and personally led armies against both foes from 831 onwards. He won fleeting victories but the retaliation of Caliphal-Mu'tasim (r. 833–842) was devastating, as was most humiliating in theSack of Amorion in 838, the ancestral home of Theophilos'Amorian dynasty. Internal strife within the Caliphate allowed the Byzantines to recover. Theophilos engaged in many construction and renovation projects. One of his closest allies was the learned and cosmopolitanJohn the Grammarian, and they both improved relations with the Caliph and appreciatedArabic culture. He also secured nominal overlordship over thePrincipality of Serbia, uniting against their common enemy, theFirst Bulgarian Empire.
The military defeats to the Arabs inspired a more intensely iconoclastic policy than what Theophilos inherited from his fatherMichael II, and he persecuted many clerics for refusing to submit to the imperial will. After his death, his wifeTheodora rescinded this policy but also defended his broader reputation. Accordingly the historical record preserves a picture of Theophilos as a just ruler and keen constructor and administrator, alongside rebukes of his iconoclasm.
Theophilos was born in late 812 or early 813,[1] the son of EmperorMichael II and his wifeThekla, and the godson of EmperorLeo V the Armenian. Michael IIcrowned Theophilos co-emperor in 821. The date is almost universally given as 12 May 821 (Whitsunday),[2][3][4] although this is not really corroborated by any source (another possible date is 24 March,Easter).[5] Unlike his father, Theophilos received an extensive education fromJohn Hylilas, the grammarian, and was a great admirer of music and art.[6]
On 2 October 829, Theophilos succeeded his father as sole emperor.[7] Theophilos continued in his predecessors'iconoclasm, though without his father's more conciliatory tone,[6] issuing an edict in 832 forbidding the veneration oficons.[8] He also saw himself as the champion of justice, which he served most ostentatiously by executing his father's co-conspirators against Leo V immediately after his accession.[9]
At the time of his accession, Theophilos was obliged to wage wars against theArabs on two fronts.Sicily was once again invaded by the Arabs, who tookPalermo after a year-long siege in 831, established theEmirate of Sicily, and gradually continued to expand across the island. In 830,Abbasid Caliphal-Ma'mun (r. 813–833) invadedCappadocia in response to Theophilos' attack onMopsuestia andTarsos, capturing the city ofTyana. He launched a second campaign in 831 and then a third in 832, in which he captured the major border fortress ofLoulon, but in 833 failed to seizeAmorion. Another defeat in Cappadocia forced Theophilos to sue for peace (a one-off tribute of 100,000 golddinars and the return of 7,000 prisoners), which he secured the next year, after the death of al-Ma'mun in 833. He was succeeded by his brotheral-Mu'tasim (r. 833–842) who abandoned Tyana.[10][11]
During the respite from the war against the Abbasids, Theophilos arranged for the abduction of the Byzantine captives settled north of theDanube byKrum of Bulgaria. The rescue operation was carried out with success in c. 836, and the peace betweenBulgaria and theByzantine Empire was quickly restored. However, it proved impossible to maintain peace in the East. In 834 Theophilos had given asylum toKhurramite refugees from the east; their leader was Nasr, aPersian who was baptized, changed his name toTheophobos, married the Emperor's aunt Irene and became one of his generals. As relations with the Abbasids deteriorated, Theophilos prepared for a new war.[12][8]
In 837, Theophilos led a vast army of 70,000 men towardsMesopotamia and capturedMelitene,Arsamosata andSamosata. The Emperor also took and destroyedSozopetra, which some sources claim as the birthplace of Caliphal-Mu'tasim.[a] Theophilos returned to Constantinople in triumph. Eager for revenge, al-Mu'tasim assembled a vast army and launched a three-pronged invasion ofAnatolia in 838. Theophilos decided to strike one division of the caliph's army before they could combine. On 21 July 838, at theBattle of Anzen in Dazimon, Theophilos personally led a Byzantine army of 25,000 to 40,000 men against the troops commanded byal-Afshin. Afshin withstood the Byzantine attack, counter-attacked, and won the battle. The Byzantine survivors fell back in disorder and did not interfere in the Caliph's continuing campaign.[17][18][19]
Al-Mu'tasim tookAncyra, and al-Afshin joined him there. The full Abbasid army advanced againstAmorion, the ancestral home of the dynasty. Initially there was determined resistance. Then a Muslim captive escaped and informed the caliph where there was a section of the wall that had only a front façade. Al-Mu'tasim concentrated his bombardment on this section, and the wall was breached. Having heroically held for fifty-five days,the city fell to al-Mu'tasim on 12 or 15 August 838. Although the Caliph was soon forced to retreat to Abbasid territory to suppress an insurgency, the defeat was a major blow to Theophilos' resources and prestige, and numerous Byzantine prisoners were executed. The weakness of the Byzantine military was exposed, in particular by eliteTurkic archers that the Caliph had recruited.[8][19]
Around 841, theRepublic of Venice sent a fleet of 60 galleys (each carrying 200 men) to assist the Byzantines in driving the Arabs fromCrotone, but it failed.[20] During the campaign al-Mu'tasim discovered that some of his top generals were plotting against him. Many of these leading commanders were arrested and some executed before he arrived home. Al-Afshin seems not to have been involved in this, but he was detected in other intrigues and died in prison in the spring of 841. Al-Mu'tasim concluded a peace with Theophilos in 841. He fell sick in October and died on 5 January 842. The Sack of Amorion was the high point of Abbasid incursion past theTaurus Mountains, after which political strife within the Caliphate improved the Byzantine military situation.[21]
Despite major defeats at the hands of the Abbasids, the Byzantines consolidated and gained a degree of economic stability, and was no longer facing an existential threat. Theophilos was a keen builder and administrator; through the construction of lavish palaces and exchange of precious goods and manuscripts, he intended to rival the court atBaghdad, which was itself seeing a revival ofHellenic thought. Even as far as the streets ofGuangzhou during the era of theTang dynasty, the Arab-stylekaftan was in fashion. In the tenth century,Liudprand of Cremona reported that Theophilos decorated the reception hall of theMagnaura with a throne andautomata of lions and birds. Theophilos also repaired theWalls of Constantinople near theBlachernae district as well as large sections of the sea walls.[22][23][24]
In 837,John the Grammarian returned from an embassy toBaghdad impressed by the architecture, and persuaded Theophilos to construct an "Abbasid"-style palace inBryas nearChalcedon, which is now in ruins.Theophanes Continuatus relates John's instructions.
[John] persuaded [Theophanes] to build the palace of Bryas in imitation of Arab [palaces] and in no way differing from the latter either in form or decoration. The work was carried out according to John's instructions by a man named Patrikes who happened to be also adorned with the rank ofpatrikios. The only departure he made [from the Arab model] was that he built next to the bedchamber a church of our most holy lady, the Mother of God, and in the courtyard of the same palace atriconch church of great beauty and exceptional size, the middle part of which was dedicated to the archangel [Michael], while the lateral parts were dedicated to women martyrs.
This passage has been interpreted as either a report of cultural receptivity and Theophilos' taste for Islamic motifs or as an iconodule fabrication to depict Theophanes and Patriarch John asMuslim-sympathisers. However the overall account is not particularly polemical.[25]
Theophilos also restructured and embellished sections of theHagia Sophia and continued repairs of the urban fabric ofConstantinople begun under Constantine V. TheHagia Sophia at Vize, Thrace [el] is dated to his reign, and resembles theHagia Irene of Constantinople.Theophanes Continuatus reports his construction of a home for former prostitutes, as well as of monasteries including theMonastery of Gastria and theSt. Panteleimon Monastery. In the palatine precinct of theGreat Palace of Constantinople, Theophilos constructed buildings sheathed in marble with bronze and silver doors, fountains, a decorated armoury, mosaics, terraces, porticoes and gardens.[26]
In 838, in order to impress the Caliph inBaghdad, Theophilus had John the Grammarian distribute 36,000nomismata to the citizens. In 839 or 840, he initiated diplomatic contact with theUmayyad Emirate of Córdoba. The name of his ambassador is somewhat garbled in the Arabic accounts ofIbn Hayyan, but it seems to have been the admiral Krateros. He was accompanied on his return by the Córdoban poetal-Ghazal, who signed a pact of friendship with Theophilos directed against the Abbasids.[27][28][29]
When the Abbasids crushed therevolt of Babak Khorramdin in 838, many remaining Khurramite rebels fled to Byzantine territory and were accepted by Theophilos and placed under the command of Theophobos. They were called "Persians" by Byzantine chroniclers and proved valuable for the Empire which was experiencing a shortage of experienced soldiers at the time.[10] However, after the Battle of Anzen, someAzerbaijani Khurramites withdrew toSinope and proclaimed Theophobos emperor. By 840, Theophilos had threatened Theophobos and persuaded him into accepting a pardon. He then redistributed the Khurramite troops throughout thethemes as garrison soldiers.[30]
The persistent warfare had caused a serious manpower shortage, which Theophilos attempted to remedy by resettling defectors from the Caliphate intoAsia Minor, and issuing an edict requiring Roman widows to marry barbarian immigrants, which was reported in theLife ofAthanasia of Aegina.[31] The discoveries of seals of the Byzantine ambassador to theFranks andVenice inBaltic trading settlements suggests that the Byzantines were attempting to recruitScandinavians, who had recently appeared in the region of theBlack Sea, as another means of addressing the manpower shortage.[32]
The capture ofPalermo by theArabs, Theophilos' defeat inCappadocia in 831 and the discovery of a treasonous plot byiconodules inConstantinople likely pressured the Emperor into enacting an iconoclastic policy that was more severe than that of his father, which Theophilos had maintained from the beginning of his reign. He was supported byJohn the Grammarian, patriarchalsynkellos (secretary) of PatriarchAntony I of Constantinople.Theophanes Continuatus reports that Theophilos forbade the painting of religious images and removed existing images, replacing them with secular images (e.g., of birds and animals), on similar grounds expressed in theActs of theCouncil of Constantinople of 815. In 833, he persecuted iconodules who were not in communion with the Patriarch by ordering the seizing of the property of those who helped or sheltered them.[33] However, the letter ofMichael II toCarolingian EmperorLouis the Pious establishes that images that were not readily accessible and suspended high up in churches were permitted and commonplace.
Along with his severe iconoclastic policy, Theophilos persecuted numerous individuals for political and religious reasons, in a targeted and methodical way, however it does appear that he was more politically than religiously motivated overall.Euthymius of Sardis andJoseph the Confessor were arrested and beaten for distributing or writing pamphlets foretelling the death of the Emperor. Euthymius was elderly and died from his injuries, Joseph was imprisoned and their associateTheophilos of Ephesos was forced into hiding. The pamphlets were considered defamatory and thus treasonous.Nicetas the Patrician, distant relative of EmpressIrene and formerstratēgos ofSicily, was banished for refusing to take communion with the Patriarch in 830. ThePalestinian monksTheodorus and Theophanes were said to be so defiant that verses describing their crimes were branded on their foreheads. Much of the persecution of iconodules was in effect punishment for challenging imperial authority rather than iconodulia as such. The abbotMethodios was publicly and provocatively opposed to the imperial policy, and was imprisoned and beaten for his disobedience. However perhaps through his connections to the imperial household or his alleged prophetic powers that may have awed Theophilos, Methodios became an associate of the Emperor. Tenth-century sources report that Theophilos' own wife,Theodora and her mother maintained iconodulia, however there is no contemporary evidence of this.[34][35]
The majority of the clergy did not revolt against imperial policy, includingJoannicius the Great, who was criticised for his compliance byTheodore the Stoudite, andIgnatios, laterPatriarch of Constantinople. Neither did Theophilos oppose all monasteries, although he used some to confine iconodule clerics, as did EmperorLeo V the Armenian.[36]
Due to the unanimous iconodule sympathies of contemporary sources, it is difficult to determine the existence and extent of a popular iconoclast or iconodule tradition. It is likely that the changes in imperial policy in 787 and 815 only affected a small number of individuals and did not alter the religious practices of the whole population to a great degree. Theophilos' enforcement of iconoclasm may have served as an opportunistic means of asserting imperial authority, rather than a purely theological endeavour, but there is no reason to doubt that he was sincere in his iconoclastic convictions.[37]
In 836, following the expiration of the20-year peace treaty between the Empire and Bulgaria, Theophilos ravaged the Bulgarian frontier. The Bulgarians retaliated, and under the leadership ofIsbul they reachedAdrianople. At this time, if not earlier, the Bulgarians annexedPhilippopolis and its environs.KhanMalamir died in 836.
The peace between theSerbs, Byzantinefoederati, and theBulgars lasted until 839.Vlastimir of Serbia united several tribes, and Theophilos granted the Serbs independence; Vlastimir acknowledged nominal overlordship of the Emperor. The annexation of western Macedonia by the Bulgars changed the political situation. Malamir or his successor may have seen a threat in the Serb consolidation and opted to subjugate them in the midst of the conquest of Slav lands. Another cause might have been that the Byzantines wanted to divert attention so that they could cope with the Slavic uprising in thePeloponnese, meaning they sent the Serbs to instigate the war. It is thought that the rapid extension of Bulgars over Slavs prompted the Serbs to unite into a state.[38][39][40]
KhanPresian I (r. 836–852)[41] invadedSerbian territory in 839 (seeBulgarian–Serbian Wars). The invasion led to a three-year war, in which Vlastimir was victorious;[42] Presian was heavily defeated, made no territorial gains, and lost many of his men. The Serbs had a tactical advantage in the hills,[43] and the Bulgars were driven out by thearmy of Vlastimir. The war ended with the death of Theophilos, which released Vlastimir from his obligations to the Byzantine Empire.
As Theophilos' health was gradually failing in 842, he suspected that Theophobos would attempt a coup after his death, so he was invited to stay in theGreat Palace of Constantinople. Immediately after Theophilos died on 20 January 842, his leading officers executed Theophobos.[44][45]
Theophilos was the last iconoclast emperor of theByzantine Empire, and his strict insistence on the removal of images and banning of the production oficons as reported by later sources represents a return to the spirit ofConstantine V'sCouncil of Hieria of 754. Theophilos was a more committed iconoclast than his father,Michael II, and so their relationship resembles that betweenLeo III the Isaurian and Constantine V, the renowned iconoclast emperors of the eighth century. In both cases, the father was a soldier of humble origins and the son brought up in the intellectually sophisticated environment of the imperial household. Theophilos' wifeTheodora (r. 842–856) defended him, which mitigated thedamnatio memoriae against him and his father Michael, nevertheless the later iconodule sources were highly critical of them.[6][46][47]
Theophilos was successful in establishing his reputation as a just ruler, and even hostile anti-Amorian chronicles retain accounts of his justice. Like EmperorLeo V the Armenian, he was viewed as close to the people and eager to defend them against injustices committed by their officials. However, Theophilos' dealings with the Empire's enemies drew criticism, particularly due to the loss of the fortress ofLoulon and the city ofTyana in raids led by Caliphal-Ma'mun from 830 to 832, and theSack of Amorium by Caliphal-Mu'tasim in 838. Nevertheless, his reputation as a just ruler endured, as can be seen in the compositionTimarion, in which Theophilos is featured as one of the judges in theNetherworld.[48][49][9]
Theophilos was a much more active patron of construction and renovation than Leo V or Michael II. He strengthened theWalls of Constantinople including the sea walls, built the fortress ofSarkel on theDon river inKhazar territories, created theCherson andChaldianthemes, and built a hospital, which continued to exist until the twilight of the Byzantine Empire.[6][9][8] In fact, his name is mentioned in inscriptions on the Walls more often than any other emperor.[50]
On 5 June 830, the seventeen-year-old Theophilos marriedTheodora on the advice or command of his stepmotherEuphrosyne. Theophilos and Theodora had seven children: two sons and five daughters. Euphrosyne retired to theMonastery of Gastria after her marriage. There she collaborated with Theodora to teach her daughters to venerateicons against the wishes of theiconoclast Theophilos.[52] In 857, EmperorMichael III confined his mother Theodora and his sisters to Gastria where they became nuns.[53][54]
Paucos hinc dies vitae superstes vigesima die Ianuarii naturae debitum solvit, imperio potitus annos duodecim menses tres.
{{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
Theophilos (emperor) Born: 813 Died: 20 January 842 | ||
| Regnal titles | ||
|---|---|---|
| Preceded by | Byzantine emperor 2 October 829 – 20 January 842 | Succeeded by |
| Political offices | ||
| Preceded by Michael II in 821, then lapsed | Roman consul 830 | Succeeded by Lapsed, Michael III in 843 |
