Much of her early life, including the date and place of her birth, is uncertain: her birthplace has been proposed by later sources asSyria,[3]Cyprus,[4]Paphlagonia,[5] orAlexandria.[5] The modern consensus seems to be that Theodora most likely was born around 495 and raised inConstantinople.[6]Procopius'sSecret History is the foremost source of her life before marriage, but most modern scholars regard it as often unreliable and slanderous. David Potter writes that Procopius' description of Theodora's erotic life "probably was composed as an exaggerated diatribe" and was "certainly not among the most accurate things he ever wrote."[7]
Her father, Acacius, was a bear keeper for theHippodrome'sGreen faction in Constantinople.[8] Thus, modern scholars argue that it is highly probable Theodora was a native of the capital[9] – this is furthered in Procopius' narrative.[10] Her mother, whose name was not recorded, was a dancer and an actress.[11] She had two sisters, an elder namedComito and a younger named Anastasia.[12] The names of her family probably suggest an upbringing in aGreek-speaking,Christian household.[13] After her father's death in her childhood, her mother remarried, but the family lacked a source of income because a Green official was bribed into giving away her stepfather's position. Consequently, her mother presented her children before the Hippodrome's crowd as suppliants to the Greens, but the Greens rebuffed her efforts. In contrast, theBlue faction took pity on the family and gave them the position.[14]
According to Procopius'Secret History,[15] Theodora began her work as a prostitute before the onset of adolescence and later joined Comito as a performer on stage.[16][17]
For she [Theodora] had an especially quick and biting wit, and soon became a star feature of the show. There was no shame at all in her, and no one ever saw her embarrassed. She would provide shameful services without the slightest hesitation and was of such a sort that if someone slapped her or even punched her full in the face she would crack a joke about it and then burst out laughing.
-- Procopius,The Secret History 9:13-15 (trans. Anthony Kaldellis) (ca. 550 AD)[18]
Procopius wrote that Theodora performed a pornographic portrayal ofLeda and the Swan, where she would have birds eat seeds from her nude body.[19][20] Employment as an actress at the time would have included performing "indecent exhibitions" on stage and providing sexual services off stage.
One time when she [Theodora] went to the house of a notable to entertain during drinks, they say that when the eyes of all the diners were upon her she mounted the frame of the couch by their feet and unceremoniously lifted up her clothes right there and then, not caring in the least that she was making a spectacle of her shamelessness. Even though she put three of herorifices to work she would impatiently reproach Nature for not making the holes in hernipples bigger than they were so that she could devise additionalsexual positions involving them as well. She was oftenpregnant, but by using almost all known techniques she couldinduce immediateabortions.
— Procopius,The Secret History 9:17–19 (trans. Anthony Kaldellis) (ca. 550 AD)[21]
ContemporaryJohn of Ephesus also describes Theodora as having come "from the brothel", butporneion which commonly means "brothel" in classical Greek can be translated to describe her career as an actress.[22][23] This has been regarded by historians as a likely mistake, or a 'scribal error'.[24] Nevertheless, the modern consensus about Theodora's sexual activity is that, as Potter states, underlying Procopius' inventions "there lies the semblance of fact."[25]
Later, Theodora traveled toNorth Africa as the concubine of Hecebolus, who became the governor of theLibyan Pentapolis.[26] Procopius alleges that their relationship dissolved after a quarrel in Africa. Theodora, "destitute of the means of life," went toAlexandria,Egypt.[19] Some historians speculate that she metMiaphysite PatriarchTimothy III and converted to Miaphysitism there, but there is no reliable evidence that this happened.[27] From Alexandria, she traveled toAntioch, where she met a Blue faction dancer called Macedonia who may have served as an informer for Justinian. Afterwards, Theodora returned to Constantinople where she met Justinian.
Justinian wanted to marry Theodora but law fromConstantine's time barred the senatorial rank from marrying an actress. EmpressEuphemia, wife of emperor Justin, also strongly opposed the marriage. Following Euphemia's death in 524, Justin passed a new law allowing reformed actresses to marry outside of their rank if approved by the emperor.[28] Shortly thereafter, Justinian married Theodora.[26]
Theodora had an illegitimate daughter whose name and father are unknown.[29] The same law that allowed Justinian and Theodora to marry also excused children of former actresses,[30] thus allowing Theodora's daughter to marrya relative of the late emperorAnastasius.Anastasius (consul 517) had a son with this daughter of Theodora, Areobindus, whose daughter, Anastasia Areobinda, marriedPeter, brother of the emperorMaurice, thelast emperor of theJustinian dynasty.[31][32] Procopius'sSecret History claimed that Theodora also had an illegitimate son, John, who arrived in Constantinople several years after her marriage.[33] According to Procopius, when Theodora learned of John's arrival and claims of kinship to her, she secretly had him sent away and he was never heard from again. Some historians, including James Allan Evans, question this account because Theodora publicly acknowledged her illegitimate daughter and, therefore, would have acknowledged an illegitimate son had one existed.[34]
When Justinian succeeded to the throne in 527, Theodora was crownedaugusta and became empress of theEastern Roman Empire. According to Procopius'Secret History, she helped her husband make decisions; participated in state councils; and had great influence over him. Justinian sought her advice and called her his "partner in my deliberations" inNovel 8.1 (AD 535), anti-corruption legislation where provincial officials had to take an oath to the emperor and Theodora.[35] Sources generally agree on her character being vindictive but determined and loyal, in marriage and politics.[36] Despite her background, she was able to fit in, proving to be clever and adaptable. Theodora used her diverse life experiences to network and secure her influence. Although most sources agree on her devotion and piousness, her character is also ambiguously described as cruel and inspiring fear.[29]
Marble sculpture of an empress, probably Theodora, in theCastello Sforzesco. Mid-sixth century A.D.[37]
The conflicts between thechariot racing factions–the Blues and the Greens–often led to street violence in the 6th century. Both Justinian and Theodora were believed to align with the Blues. Consequently, the Greens felt isolated and frustrated.[38] Following a riot between the two factions in early January 532, a group of both Green and Blue leaders were sentenced to death but two of the felons, one Blue and one Green, survived the hanging. When the emperor remained unresponsive to the circus factions' demands to pardon the two, the angry factions united chanting "Nika", meaning "conquer".[39]
The rioters set many public buildings on fire and proclaimed a new emperor,Hypatius, the nephew of the former emperorAnastasius I. Unable to control the mob, Justinian and his officials prepared to flee. According to Procopius, Theodora spoke out against fleeing during a meeting of the government council,[29] underlining the significance of someone who dies a ruler instead of living as an exile.[40]
According toProcopius, Theodora interrupted the emperor and his counselors, saying:
My lords, the present occasion is too serious to allow me to follow the convention that a woman should not speak in a man's council. Those whose interests are threatened by extreme danger should think only of the wisest course of action, not of conventions. In my opinion, flight is not the right course, even if it should bring us to safety. It is impossible for a person, having been born into this world, not to die; but for one who has reigned, it is intolerable to be a fugitive. May I never be deprived of this purple robe, and may I never see the day when those who meet me do not call me Empress. If you wish to save yourself, my lord, there is no difficulty. We are rich; over there is the sea, and yonder are the ships. Yet reflect for a moment whether, when you have once escaped to a place of security, you would not gladly exchange such safety for death. As for me, I agree with the adage, that "royal purple" is the noblest shroud.[40]
Her speech motivated the men, including Justinian. J.A.S Evans states that Theodora managed to steady Justinian and his court and convince them to fight instead of flee.[41] He ordered his troops to attack the demonstrators in the Hippodrome, resulting in the deaths of over 30,000 civilian rebels.[b] Despite his claims that he was unwillingly named emperor by the mob, Hypatius and his brotherPompeius were put to death by Justinian. In one source, this came at Theodora's insistence.[43]
Some scholars such as J.A.S Evans state that Theodora's speech had an 'ambiguous' undertone.[41] They believe Procopius intended to portray Justinian as more cowardly than his wife, noting that Procopius made her quote an advice given to the notorious tyrantDionysius of Syracuse. Changing the term "tyranny" (tyrannis) to "royal purple" or "kingship" (basileia) possibly reflects Procopius' intent to link Theodora and Justinian to ancient tyrants.[44][45] Evans further argues that Procopius has dramatized the event, presenting a story with two levels of meaning, suggesting that Procopius intended not only to record history but also to offer a deeper commentary on power and morality.[41] Thus, we must be cautious when reading Procopius.
Justinian and Theodora constructed a number of new buildings in Constantinople, including churches, the most famous of which isHagia Sophia (others include the Church of Saints Sergius and Bacchus, according to Procipius).
According to Procopius, all senators, including patricians, were required to prostrate themselves whenever entering the imperial couple's presence and kiss their feet, as an imperial greeting ceremony.[46][47]
Procopius' description of the ceremony was corroborated by the poetCorippus.[48] Justinian and Theodora also required people to call them "master" and "mistress".[49]
Theodora was at odds withpraetorian prefectJohn the Cappadocian because of his influence and his slanders of her to the emperor. Theodora andAntonina, the wife ofBelisarius, devised a plot to bring down John. The plot took place in 541, when Antonina tricked Johns daughter into believing a plot had been devised which would ultimately dispose Justinian as emperor, favouring Belisarius.[24] After informing her father of this alleged plot, Theodora caught John making 'treasonous remarks' and therefore succeeded in removing him.[24] She was also hostile toGermanus, the cousin of Justinian. In contrast, the praetorian prefectPeter Barsymes was her ally. She engaged in matchmaking, forming a network of alliances between EmperorAnastasius' family, pre-existing nobility, and Justinian's family. According toSecret History, she attempted to marry her grandson Anastasius to Joannina, Belisarius' and Antonina's daughter and heiress, against her parents' will. Although the marriage was initially rejected, the couple eventually married.[citation needed] The marriages of her sister Comito to generalSittas and her nieceSophia to Justinian's nephewJustin II, who would succeed to the throne, are suspected to have been engineered by Theodora. She also gave reception and sent letters and gifts toPersian and foreign ambassadors and the sister ofKavad.[50]
Theodora was involved in helping underprivileged women. In one instance, she compelled general Artabanes, who intended to wed Justinian's niece, to reclaim the wife he abandoned.[51] She sometimes freed prostitutes.[52] She created a convent on theAsian side of theDardanelles called theMetanoia (Repentance), where the ex-prostitutes could support themselves.[26]Procopius'Secret History maintained that instead of preventing forced prostitution (as inBuildings 1.9.3ff), Theodora is said to have "rounded up" 500 prostitutes, confining them to a convent. They sought to escape "the unwelcome transformation" by leaping over the walls (SH 17). On the other hand, chroniclerJohn Malalas wrote positively about the convent, declaring that Theodora "freed the girls from the yoke of their wretched slavery."[53] In 528, Theodora and Justinian ordered the closure of the brothels and the arrest of their keepers and procurers. She paid their owners back the purchase fee, freeing the prostitutes from their captivity. To facilitate the start of their new lives, she supplied the liberated women with clothing and gifted each of them a goldnomisma.[51]
InWars, Procopius mentioned that Theodora was naturally inclined to assist women in misfortune and, according toSecret History, she was accused of unfairly championing the wives charged with adultery (SH 17). The code of Justinian only allowed women to seek a divorce from their husbands due to either abuse or a wife catching their husband in obvious adultery. Regardless, women seeking a divorce had to provide clear evidence of their claims.[54] Procopius describes Theodora as causing women to "become morally depraved" due to her and Justinian's legal actions.[55]
Justinian worked to heal the divide between the supporters of differentChristological doctrines by bringing theMonophysites/Miaphysites (anti-Chalcedonians) under theChalcedonian Church. Theodora, reputed to be a Miaphysite, worked against her husband's support of the Chalcedonian Christianity in the ongoing struggle for the dominance of each faction. As a result, she was accused by pro-Chalcedonians of fosteringheresy and undermining the unity ofChristendom. However, Procopius andEvagrius Scholasticus suggested that Justinian and Theodora were merely pretending to oppose each other, a view also followed by some modern historians.[56]
John of Ephesus, a key figure within the Miaphysite movement, wrote of the significant contributions of Theodora in assisting church building projects and supporting the poor.[57] Her involvement also was documented as being instrumental to the protection of the Monophysites from the Chalcedonians.[58] Theodora founded aMiaphysite monastery inSykae and provided shelter in the palace for Miaphysite leaders who faced opposition from the majority of Chalcedonian Christians, likeSeverus andAnthimus. Anthimus had been appointedPatriarch of Constantinople under her influence and, after the ex-communication order, he was hidden in Theodora's quarters for ten years.[59] When theChalcedonian PatriarchEphraim provoked a violent revolt in Antioch, eight Miaphysite bishops were invited to Constantinople; Theodora welcomed them and housed them in theHormisdas Palace, Justinian and Theodora's dwelling before they became Emperor and Empress. Theodora persistently provided sanctuary for persecuted Miaphysites within the Palace, accommodating such a significant number of monks that, in one incident, several hundred gathered in a grand chamber, causing the floor to collapse.[60]Furthermore, the Empress was involved in building theChurch of Sergius and Bacchus, located next toHormisdas palace. The dedicatory inscription, which remains visible to this day, proclaims: "May he [Sergius] increase the power of the God-crowned Theodora whose mind is adorned with piety, whose constant toil lies in unsparing efforts to nourish the destitute."[61]
When PopeTimothy III of Alexandria died, Theodora enlisted the help of the Augustal Prefect and the Duke of Egypt to makeTheodosius, a disciple of Severus, the new pope. Thus, she outmaneuvered her husband who wanted a Chalcedonian successor. However, Pope Theodosius I of Alexandria and the imperial troops could not hold Alexandria against Justinian's Chalcedonian followers; Justinian exiled the pope and 300 Miaphysites to the fortress ofDelcus inThrace.
InNobatae, south of Egypt, the inhabitants were converted to Miaphysite Christianity about 540. Justinian was determined that they should be converted to the Chalcedonian faith, with Theodora equally determined that they should become Miaphysites. Justinian made arrangements for Chalcedonian missionaries fromThebaid to go with presents to Silko, the King of the Nobatae. in response, Theodora prepared her missionaries and wrote to the Duke of Thebaid, asking that he should delay her husband's embassy so that the Miaphysite missionaries would arrive first. The duke was canny enough to thwart the easygoing Justinian instead of the unforgiving Theodora. He made sure that the Chalcedonian missionaries were delayed; when they eventually reached Silko, they were sent away. The Nobatae had already adopted the Miaphysite creed of Theodosius.
Theodora's death is recorded byVictor of Tunnuna, with the cause uncertain; however, the Greek terms used are often translated as "cancer".[62] Her death date was 28 June 548.[63][64][65] Later accounts attribute the death tobreast cancer but this was not identified in the original report, where the use of the term "cancer" probably referred to a more general "suppurating ulcer or malignant tumor".[64] She was buried in theChurch of the Holy Apostles in Constantinople. During a procession in 559, 11 years after her death, Justinian visited her tomb and lit candles in her memory.[66]
The main historical sources about her life are the works of her contemporaryProcopius, who was a legal advisor to general Belisarius.[67] Procopius wrote three portrayals of the Empress.The Wars of Justinian, or "History of the Wars," was largely completed by 550,[68] and paints a picture of a courageous woman who helped save Justinian's attempt at the throne.
Procopius probably wrote theSecret History around the same time.[69] The work has sometimes been interpreted as representing disillusionment with Emperor Justinian, the empress, and his patron, Belisarius. Justinian is depicted as cruel, corrupt, extravagant, and incompetent; while Theodora is shrewish and openly sexual. Procopius'Buildings of Justinian, written around 554, afterSecret History,[70] is apanegyric that paints Justinian and Theodora as a pious couple. It presents particularly flattering portrayals of them; her piety and beauty are praised. Theodora was dead when the work was published, and Justinian most likely commissioned the work.[71]
Her contemporaryJohn of Ephesus writes about Theodora inLives of the Eastern Saints and mentions an illegitimate daughter.[72]Theophanes the Confessor mentions some familial relations of Theodora that were not mentioned by Procopius.Victor of Tunnuna notes her familial relation to the next empress,Sophia.Bar-Hebraeus andMichael the Syrian both say Theodora was from the city of Daman, nearKallinikos,Syria. These later Miaphysite sources account say that Theodora is the daughter of a priest, trained in the pious practices ofMiaphysitism since birth. The Miaphysites tend to regard Theodora as one of their own. Their account is also an alternative to that of contemporary John of Ephesus.[73] Many modern scholars prefer Procopius' account.[72]
Some modern historians argue that Procopius is not necessarily a reliable source for understanding Theodora. According to James Allan Evans, his aggressive portrayal of the empress reflects how the higher class circles felt threatened by her power, rather than her true reputation.[34] For him, it is necessary to question that bias since Procopius' description is "the opposite of the reputation she cultivated".[34] David Potter writes that some stories reflect the values that a good empress is pious and chaste while a bad empress is promiscuous and greedy.[74] According toAveril Cameron, the portrayal of Justinian and Theodora as demons in theSecret History may reflect a common contemporary way to rationalize the inexplicable.[75]
Other modern historians believe that Procopius' narrative about Theodora is more reliable than often thought.[59][76]Anthony Kaldellis and Clive Foss point out that a number of independent sources corroborate Procopius' claims, such as her background in theatre, the marriage legislation and her ruthlessness against her enemies.[77] Contemporary texts other than Procopius'Secret History also confirm her involvement in the downfall ofSilverius, Bishop of Rome and Priscus, the imperial secretary andCommander of the Excubitors.[77][78] According to Foss, Procopius may have embellished, rather than invented, the story.[51]
According to one historian, "No empress left so profound a mark on the imagination of her people as did Theodora.[79] The Miaphysites believed Theodora's influence on Justinian was so strong that, after her death, he worked to bring harmony between the Miaphysites (Non-Chalcedonian) and the Chalcedonian Christians and kept his promise to protect her little community of Miaphysite refugees in theHormisdas Palace. Theodora provided much political support for the ministry ofJacob Baradaeus.
Olbia inCyrenaica was renamed Theodorias after Theodora. (It was common for ancient cities to rename themselves to honor an Emperor or Empress.) Now calledQasr Libya, the city is known for its sixth-century mosaics. The settlement of Cululis (modern-day Ain Jelloula) in what is now Tunisia (Africa Proconsularis) was also renamed Theodoriana after Theodora.[3]
Theodora and Justinian are represented in mosaics in theBasilica of San Vitale ofRavenna, Italy, which were completed a year before her death after 547 when the Byzantines retook the city. She is depicted in full imperial garb, endowed with jewels befitting her role as empress. Her cloak is embroidered with imagery of the three kings bearing their gifts for the Christ child, symbolizing a connection between her and Justinian bringing gifts to the church. In this case, she is shown bearing a communion chalice. Another mosaic depicted Theodora and Justinian receiving the vanquished kings of the Goths and Vandals as prisoners of war, surrounded by the cheering Roman Senate. The Emperor and Empress are recognized for both victory and in generosity in these large-scale public works.[80] In more recent times, plays, operas, films, and novels have been written about Theodora.[81]
^Karagianni 2013, p. 22; Estimates of her birth date vary. According to Clive Foss, possible dates range from 485 to 512, but most likely 490 or a few years later.[1] Britannica indicates ca. 497 ("Theodora," Britannica); and theBrooklyn Museum says ca. 500.
^Other reports claim greater numbers of victims, with the numbers increasing with the distance from Constantinople;Pseudo-Zachariah of Mytilene estimated the dead at more than 80,000.[42]
^Seregi Grau, "Theodora: a (not so) Holy Harlot: Procopius' 'Secret History' and the Hagiographic Narrative,"Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies vol. 63 (2023), pp. 447, 449.
^See, for example, Evans, James Allan (2002),The Empress Theodora: Partner of Justinian. Austin: University of Texas Press. p.1ISBN0-292-79895-4.OCLC 55675917, and David Potter,Theodora: Actress, Empress, Saint (2015) p.8. See also the references in note 1 above.
^D. Potter,Theodora: Actress, Empress, Saint, (New York: Oxford University Press, 2015), p.27.
^E, Gibbon (1776).The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire: 1776–1788. UK: Strahan & Cadell, London. pp. Chapter xl.ISBN978-0-14-043395-1.{{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
^De Cesarea, Procopio.The Secret History. Hackett Publishing Company.
^Grau, Sergi; Febrer, Oriol (2020-08-01). "Procopius on Theodora: ancient and new biographical patterns".Byzantinische Zeitschrift (in German).113 (3): 769–788.doi:10.1515/bz-2020-0034.ISSN 1868-9027.
^Lindholmer, Mads Ortving (2024). "Constructing Power through Rituals". In Rollinger, Christian; Viermann, Nadine (eds.).Empresses-in-Waiting: Female Power and Performance at the Late Roman Court. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press. pp. 157–176.ISBN978-1-80207-593-9.
^Cameron 1976, pp. 90, 136: Corippus 1.155–159 describes theadoratio given to Justinian and Theodora's immediate successors,Justin II andSophia.
^Id., p.9 and Potter, n.10 above at p.25. However, Evans and others have reasoned a publication date of around 560. See, e.g., J.A.S. Evans,Procopius (1972), pp. 14, 46.
Garland, Lynda (1999).Byzantine empresses: women and power in Byzantium, AD 527-1204. London: Routledge.
Kaldellis, Anthony (2010).Prokopios: The Secret History: With Related Texts. Translated by Kaldellis, Anthony. Indianapolis/Cambridge: Hackett Publishing Company, Inc.ISBN978-1603841801.
Kaldellis, Anthony (2023).The New Roman Empire: A History of Byzantium. New York: Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0197549322.
Kaldellis, Anthony (2004).Procopius of Caesarea: Tyranny, History, and Philosophy at the End of Antiquity. University of Pennsylvania.ISBN978-0-8122-0241-0.OCLC956784628.
Hartmut Leppin:Theodora und Iustinian. In:Hildegard Temporini-Gräfin Vitzthum (ed.):Die Kaiserinnen Roms. Von Livia bis Theodora. Munich 2002, pp. 437–481.
Mischa Meier: "Zur Funktion der Theodora-Rede im Geschichtswerk Prokops (BP 1,24,33-37)",Rheinisches Museum für Philologie 147 (2004), pp. 88ff.
Karagianni, Alexandra (2013). "Female Monarchs in the Medieval Byzantine Court: Prejudice, Disbelief, and Calumnies". In Woodacre, Elena (ed.).Queenship in the Mediterranean: Negotiating the Role of the Queen in the Medieval and Early Modern Eras. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 22.ISBN978-1-137-36282-7.
Italics indicates a consort to a junior co-emperor,underlining indicates a consort to an emperor variously regarded as either legitimate or a usurper, andbold incidates an empress regnant.
_v2.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
_Gianna_Maria_Canale_(2).png)
