This article is about the figure in the Abrahamic religions. For personifications of evil in various cultures, seeDevil. For other uses, seeSatan (disambiguation).
Illustration of the Devil onCodex Gigas, early thirteenth century
Satan,[a] also known asthe Devil,[b] is anentity inAbrahamic religions whoentices humans intosin orfalsehood. InJudaism, Satan is seen as an agent subservient toGod, typically regarded as a metaphor for theyetzer hara, or 'evil inclination'. InChristianity andIslam, he is usually seen as afallen angel orjinn who has rebelled againstGod, who nevertheless allows him temporary power over the fallen world and a host ofdemons. In theBaháʼí Faith, Satan is not regarded as an independent evil power, but signifies thelower nature of humans.[6][7]
In theQuran,Iblis (Shaitan), the leader of thedevils (shayāṭīn), is made of fire and was cast out of Heaven because he refused to bow before the newly createdAdam. He incites humans to sin by infecting their minds withwaswās ('evil suggestions').
Although Satan is generally viewed as evil, some groups have very different beliefs. Intheistic Satanism, Satan is considered a deity who is either worshipped or revered. InLaVeyan Satanism, Satan is a symbol of virtuous characteristics and liberty. Satan's appearance is never described in the Bible, but, since the ninth century, he has often been shown inChristian art with horns, cloven hooves, unusually hairy legs, and a tail, often naked and holding a pitchfork. These are an amalgam of traits derived from various pagan deities, includingPan,Poseidon, andBes. Satan appears frequently inChristian literature, most notably inDante Alighieri'sInferno, all variants of the classicFaust story,John Milton'sParadise Lost andParadise Regained, and the poems ofWilliam Blake.[8] He continues to appear in literature, film, television, video game, and music.
Historical development
Hebrew Bible
Balaam and the Angel (1836) byGustav Jäger. The angel in this incident is referred to as a "satan".[9]
TheHebrew termśāṭān (Hebrew:שָׂטָן) is a generic noun meaning "accuser" or "adversary",[10][11] and is derived from a verb meaning primarily "to obstruct, oppose".[12] In the earlier biblical books, e.g.1 Samuel 29:4, the term refers to human adversaries, but in the later books, especiallyJob 1–2 andZechariah 3, to a supernatural entity.[11] When used without the definite article (simplysatan), it can refer to any accuser,[13] but when it is used with the definite article (ha-satan), it usually refers specifically to the heavenly accuser, literally,the satan.[13]
The word with thedefinite articleHa-Satan (Hebrew:הַשָּׂטָןhasSāṭān) occurs 17 times in theMasoretic Text, in two books of the Hebrew Bible:Job ch. 1–2 (14×) andZechariah 3:1–2 (3×).[14][15] It is translated in English bibles mostly as 'Satan'.
The word does not occur in theBook of Genesis, which mentions only atalking serpent and does not identify the serpent with any supernatural entity.[16] The first occurrence of the word "satan" in the Hebrew Bible in reference to a supernatural figure comes fromNumbers 22:22,[10] which describes theAngel of Yahweh confrontingBalaam on his donkey:[9] "Balaam's departure aroused the wrath ofElohim, and the Angel of Yahweh stood in the road as a satan against him."[10] In2 Samuel 24 Yahweh sends the "Angel of Yahweh" to inflict a plague against Israel for three days,killing 70,000 people as punishment forDavid having taken a census without his approval.[17]1 Chronicles 21:1 repeats this story, but replaces the "Angel of Yahweh" with an entity referred to as "a satan".[17]
Some passages may refer to the satan, without using the word itself.[18]1 Samuel 2:12 describes thesons of Eli as "sons ofBelial";[19] the name "Belial" may be a synonym for "satan",[19] although elsewhere in the Bible "belial" is a word meaning "worthlessness" and the phrase "sons of belial" is translated as "worthless fellows".[20] In1 Samuel 16:14–23 Yahweh sends a "troubling spirit" to torment KingSaul as a mechanism to ingratiate David with the king.[21] In1 Kings 22:19–25 the prophetMicaiah describes to KingAhab a vision of Yahweh sitting on his throne surrounded by theHost of Heaven.[19] Yahweh asks the Host which of them will lead Ahab astray.[19] A "spirit", whose name is not specified, but who is analogous to the satan, volunteers to be "a Lying Spirit in the mouth of all his Prophets".[19]
Book of Job
The satan appears in theBook of Job, a poetic dialogue set within a prose framework,[22] which may have been written around the time of theBabylonian captivity.[22] In the text,Job is a righteous man favored by Yahweh.[22]Job 1:6–8 describes the "sons of God" (bənê hāʼĕlōhîm) presenting themselves before Yahweh.[22] Yahweh asks one of them, "the satan", where he has been, to which he replies that he has been roaming around the earth.[22] Yahweh asks, "Have you considered My servant Job?"[22] The satan replies by urging Yahweh to let him torture Job, promising that Job will abandon his faith at the first tribulation.[23] Yahweh consents: the satan destroys Job's servants and flocks, yet Job refuses to condemn Yahweh.[23] The first scene repeats itself, with the satan presenting himself to Yahweh alongside the other "sons of God".[24] Yahweh points out Job's continued faithfulness, to which the satan insists that more testing is necessary;[24] Yahweh once again gives him permission to test Job.[24] In the end, Job remains faithful and righteous, and it is implied that the satan is shamed in his defeat.[25]
Book of Zechariah
Zechariah 3:1–7 contains a description of a vision dated to the middle of February of 519 BC,[26] in which an angel showsZechariah a scene ofJoshua the High Priest dressed in filthy rags, representing the nation of Judah and its sins,[27] on trial with Yahweh as the judge and the satan standing as theprosecutor.[27] Yahweh rebukes the satan[27] and orders for Joshua to be given clean clothes, representing Yahweh's forgiveness of Judah's sins.[27]
The idea of Satan as an opponent of God and a purely evil figure seems to have taken root in Jewishpseudepigrapha during the Second Temple Period,[32] particularly in theapocalypses.[33] TheBook of Enoch, which theDead Sea Scrolls have revealed to have been nearly as popular as the Torah,[34] describes a group of 200 angels known as the "Watchers", who are assigned to supervise the earth but instead abandon their duties and have sexual intercourse with human women.[35] The leader of the Watchers isSemjâzâ[36] and another member of the group, known asAzazel, spreads sin and corruption among humankind.[36] The Watchers are ultimately sequestered in isolated caves across the earth[36] and are condemned to face judgement at the end of time.[36] TheBook of Jubilees, written around 150 BC,[37] retells the story of the Watchers' defeat,[38] but, in deviation from the Book of Enoch,Mastema, the "Chief of Spirits", intervenes before all of their demon offspring are sealed away, requesting for Yahweh to let him keep some of them to become his workers.[39] Yahweh acquiesces to this request[39] and Mastema uses them to tempt humans into committing more sins, so that he may punish them for their wickedness.[40] Later, Mastema induces Yahweh to testAbraham by ordering him tosacrifice Isaac.[40][41]
TheSecond Book of Enoch, also called the Slavonic Book of Enoch, contains references to a Watcher called Satanael.[42] It is apseudepigraphic text of an uncertain date and unknown authorship. The text describes Satanael as being the prince of the Grigori who was cast out of heaven[43] and an evil spirit who knew the difference between what was "righteous" and "sinful".[44] In theBook of Wisdom, the devil is taken to be the being who brought death into the world, but originally the culprit was recognized as Cain.[45][46][47] The nameSamael, which is used in reference to one of thefallen angels, later became a common name for Satan in JewishMidrash andKabbalah.[48]
Judaism
The sound of ashofar (pictured) is believed to symbolically confuse Satan.
Most Jews do not believe in the existence of a supernatural omnimalevolent figure.[49] Traditionalists and philosophers inmedieval Judaism adhered torational theology, rejecting any belief in rebel or fallen angels, and viewingevil as abstract.[50] The rabbis usually interpreted the wordsatan lacking the articleha-, as it is used in the Tanakh, as referring strictly tohuman adversaries.[51] Nonetheless, the wordsatan has occasionally been metaphorically applied to evil influences,[52] such as theJewish exegesis of theyetzer hara ("evil inclination") mentioned in Genesis 6:5.[53][54]
TheTalmudic image of Satan is contradictory. While Satan's identification with the abstractyetzer hara remains uniform over the sages' teachings, he is generally identified as an entity with independent agency. For instance, one rabbi identified Satan both with theangel of death and with theyetzer hara.[55] Satan's status as a personality is strengthened by numerous other rabbinical anecdotes: one tale describes incidents where Satan appeared as a woman in order to temptRabbi Meir andRabbi Akiva into sin,[56] while another describes Satan taking the form of an ill-mannered, diseased beggar in order to tempt the sage Peleimu into breaking themitzvah of hospitality.[57] Another passage relates that Satan once kissed the feet ofAha bar Jacob for having taught his students that his objectionable actions are done only to serve the intents of God.[58]
Rabbinical scholarship on theBook of Job generally follows theTalmud andMaimonides in identifying "the satan" from the prologue as a metaphor for theyetzer hara and not an actual entity.[59] Satan is rarely mentioned inTannaitic literature, but is found in Babylonianaggadah.[33] According to a narration, the sound of theshofar, which is primarily intended to remind Jews of the importance ofteshuva, is also intended symbolically to "confuse the accuser" (Satan) and prevent him from rendering anylitigation toGod against the Jews.[60]Kabbalah presents Satan as an agent of God whose function is to tempt humans into sinning so that he may accuse them in the heavenly court.[61]
Modern denominations of Judaism have differing interpretations of Satan's identity.Orthodox Judaism accepts the diversity of Talmudic teachings on Satan, and Satan is mentioned in some standard prayers, such as theShema blessings inMaariv.[62] InReform Judaism, Satan is generally seen in his Talmudic role as a metaphor for theyetzer hara and the symbolic representation of innate human qualities such as selfishness.[63]
The most common English synonym for "Satan" is "devil", which descends fromMiddle Englishdevel, fromOld Englishdēofol, that in turn represents an earlyGermanic borrowing ofLatindiabolus (also the source of "diabolical"). This in turn was borrowed fromGreekdiabolos "slanderer", fromdiaballein "to slander":dia- "across, through" +ballein "to hurl".[66] In the New Testament, the wordsSatan anddiabolos are used interchangeably as synonyms.[67][68]Beelzebub, meaning "Lord of Flies", is the contemptuous name given in the Hebrew Bible and New Testament to aPhilistine god whose original name has been reconstructed as most probably "Ba'al Zabul", meaning "Baal the Prince".[69] TheSynoptic Gospels identify Satan and Beelzebub as the same.[67] The nameAbaddon (meaning "place of destruction") is used six times in the Old Testament, mainly as a name for one of the regions ofSheol.[70]Revelation 9:11 describes Abaddon, whose name is translated into Greek asApollyon, meaning "the destroyer", as an angel who rules theAbyss.[71] In modern usage, Abaddon is sometimes equated with Satan.[70]
New Testament
Gospels, Acts, and epistles
The Devil depicted inThe Temptation of Christ, byAry Scheffer, 1854
The three Synoptic Gospels all describe thetemptation of Christ by Satan in the desert (Matthew 4:1–11,Mark 1:12–13, andLuke 4:1–13).[72] Satan first shows Jesus a stone and tells him to turn it into bread.[72] He also takes him to the pinnacle of theTemple in Jerusalem and commands Jesus to throw himself down so that the angels will catch him.[72] Satan takes Jesus to the top of a tall mountain as well; there, he shows him the kingdoms of the earth and promises to give them all to him if he will bow down and worship him.[72] Each time Jesus rebukes Satan[72] and, after the third temptation, he is administered by the angels.[72] Satan's promise inMatthew 4:8–9 andLuke 4:6–7 to give Jesus all the kingdoms of the earth implies that all those kingdoms belong to him.[73] The fact that Jesus does not dispute Satan's promise indicates that the authors of those gospels believed this to be true.[73]
Satan plays a role in some of theparables of Jesus, namely theParable of the Sower, theParable of the Weeds,Parable of the Sheep and the Goats, and theParable of the Strong Man.[74] According to the Parable of the Sower, Satan "profoundly influences" those who fail to understand the gospel.[75] The latter two parables say that Satan's followers will be punished onJudgement Day, with the Parable of the Sheep and the Goats stating that the Devil, his angels, and the people who follow him will be consigned to "eternal fire".[76] When thePharisees accused Jesus of exorcising demons through the power of Beelzebub, Jesus responded by telling the Parable of the Strong Man, saying: "how can someone enter a strong man's house and plunder his goods, unless he first binds the strong man? Then indeed he may plunder his house" (Matthew 12:29).[77] The strong man in this parable represents Satan.[78]
The Synoptic Gospels identify Satan and his demons as the causes of illness,[73] includingfever (Luke 4:39),leprosy (Luke 5:13), andarthritis (Luke 13:11–16),[73] while theEpistle to the Hebrews describes the Devil as "him who holds the power of death" (Hebrews 2:14).[79] The author ofLuke-Acts attributes more power to Satan than either Matthew and Mark.[80] InLuke 22:31, Jesus grants Satan the authority to testPeter and the otherapostles.[81]Luke 22:3–6 states thatJudas Iscariot betrayed Jesus because "Satan entered" him[80] and, inActs 5:3, Peter describes Satan as "filling"Ananias's heart and causing him to sin.[82] TheGospel of John only uses the nameSatan three times.[83] InJohn 8:44, Jesus says that his Jewish or Judean enemies are the children of the Devil rather than the children of Abraham.[83] The same verse describes the Devil as "a man-killer from the beginning"[83] and "a liar and the father of lying."[83][84]John 13:2 describes the Devil as inspiring Judas to betray Jesus[85] andJohn 12:31–32 identifies Satan as "prince of this world", who is destined to be overthrown through Jesus's death and resurrection.[86]John 16:7–8 promises that theHoly Spirit will "accuse the World concerning sin, justice, and judgement", a role resembling that of the Satan in the Old Testament.[87]
TheBook of Revelation represents Satan as the supernatural ruler of theRoman Empire and the ultimate cause of all evil in the world.[98] InRevelation 2:9–10, as part of the letter to the church atSmyrna,John of Patmos refers to the Jews of Smyrna as "asynagogue of Satan"[99] and warns that "the Devil is about to cast some of you into prison as a test [peirasmos], and for ten days you will have affliction."[99] InRevelation 2:13–14, in the letter to the church ofPergamum, John warns that Satan lives among the members of the congregation[100] and declares that "Satan's throne" is in their midst.[100] Pergamum was the capital of theRoman Province of Asia[100] and "Satan's throne" may be referring to the monumentalPergamon Altar in the city, which was dedicated to the Greek godZeus,[100] or to a temple dedicated to the Roman emperorAugustus.[100]
Revelation 12:3 describes a vision of aGreat Red Dragon with seven heads, ten horns, seven crowns, and a massive tail,[101] an image which is likely inspired by the vision of thefour beasts from the sea in theBook of Daniel[102] and theLeviathan described in various Old Testament passages.[103] The Great Red Dragon knocks "a third of the sun... a third of the moon, and a third of the stars" out the sky[104] and pursues theWoman of the Apocalypse.[104]Revelation 12:7–9 declares: "And war broke out in Heaven. Michael and his angels fought against the Dragon. The Dragon and his angels fought back, but they were defeated, and there was no longer any place for them in Heaven. Dragon the Great was thrown down, that ancient serpent who is called Devil and Satan, the one deceiving the whole inhabited World – he was thrown down to earth, and his angels were thrown down with him."[105] Then a voice booms down from Heaven heralding the defeat of "the Accuser" (ho Kantegor), identifying the Satan of Revelation with the satan of the Old Testament.[106]
Christians have traditionally interpreted the unnamed serpent in theGarden of Eden as Satan due toRevelation 12:7, which calls Satan "that ancient serpent".[106][11] This verse, however, is probably intended to identify Satan with theLeviathan,[106] a monstrous sea-serpent whose destruction by Yahweh is prophesied inIsaiah 27:1.[103] The first recorded individual to identify Satan with the serpent from the Garden of Eden was the second-century AD Christian apologistJustin Martyr,[110][111] in chapters 45 and 79 of hisDialogue with Trypho.[111] Other earlyChurch Fathers to mention this identification includeTheophilus andTertullian.[112] The early Christian Church, however, encountered opposition from pagans such asCelsus, who claimed in his treatiseThe True Word that "it is blasphemy... to say that the greatest God... has an adversary who constrains his capacity to do good" and said that Christians "impiously divide the kingdom of God, creating a rebellion in it, as if there were opposing factions within the divine, including one that is hostile to God".[113]
TheChurch FatherOrigen of Alexandria (c. 184 –c. 253), who was only aware of the actual text of these passages and not the original myths to which they refer, concluded in his treatiseOn the First Principles, which is preserved in a Latin translation byTyrannius Rufinus, that neither of these verses could literally refer to a human being.[118] He concluded that Isaiah 14:12 is an allegory for Satan and that Ezekiel 28:12–15 is an allusion to "a certain Angel who had received the office of governing the nation of the Tyrians", but was hurled down to Earth after he was found to be corrupt.[119][120] In his apologetic treatiseContra Celsum, however, Origen interprets both Isaiah 14:12 and Ezekiel 28:12–15 as referring to Satan.[121] According to Henry Ansgar Kelly, Origen seems to have adopted this new interpretation to refute unnamed persons who, perhaps under the influence of Zoroastrian radical dualism, believed "that Satan's original nature was Darkness."[122] The later Church FatherJerome (c. 347 – 420), translator of the LatinVulgate, accepted Origen's theory of Satan as a fallen angel[123] and wrote about it in his commentary on the Book of Isaiah.[123] In Christian tradition ever since, both Isaiah 14:12[124][125] and Ezekiel 28:12–15 have been understood as allegorically referring to Satan.[126][127] For most Christians, Satan has been regarded as an angel who rebelled againstGod.[128][125]
Mostearly Christians firmly believed that Satan and his demons had the power to possess humans,[135] andexorcisms were widely practiced by Jews, Christians, and pagans alike.[135] Belief indemonic possession continued through theMiddle Ages into theearly modern period.[136][137] Exorcisms were seen as a display of God's power over Satan.[138] The vast majority of people who thought they were possessed by the Devil did not suffer from hallucinations or other "spectacular symptoms", but "complained of anxiety, religious fears, and evil thoughts".[139]
Satan had minimal role inmedieval Christian theology,[140] but he frequently appeared as a recurring comedicstock character in late medievalmystery plays, in which he was portrayed as acomic relief figure who "frolicked, fell, and farted in the background".[140]Jeffrey Burton Russell describes the medieval conception of Satan as "more pathetic and repulsive than terrifying"[140][141] and he was seen as little more than a nuisance to God's overarching plan.[140] TheGolden Legend, a collection of saints' lives compiled in around 1260 by the Dominican FriarJacobus de Voragine, contains numerous stories about encounters between saints and Satan,[142] in which Satan is constantly duped by the saints' cleverness and by the power of God.[142] Henry Ansgar Kelly remarks that Satan "comes across as the opposite of fearsome".[143] TheGolden Legend was the most popular book during the High and Late Middle Ages[144] and more manuscripts of it have survived from the period than of any other book, including even the Bible itself.[144]
During the early modern period, witches were widely believed to engage in sexually explicit Satanic rituals with demons,[145] such as the one shown in this illustration byMartin van Maële in the 1911 edition ofSatanism and Witchcraft byJules Michelet.
During theEarly Modern Period, Christians gradually began to regard Satan as increasingly powerful[147] and the fear of Satan's power became a dominant aspect of the worldview of Christians across Europe.[138][140] During theProtestant Reformation,Martin Luther taught that, rather than trying to argue with Satan, Christians should avoid temptation altogether by seeking out pleasant company;[150] Luther especially recommended music as a safeguard against temptation, since the Devil "cannot enduregaiety".[150]John Calvin repeated a maxim fromSaint Augustine that "Man is like a horse, with either God or the devil as rider."[151]
In the late fifteenth century, a series of witchcraft panics erupted in France and Germany.[148][149] The GermanInquisitorsHeinrich Kramer andJacob Sprenger argued in their bookMalleus Maleficarum, published in 1487, that allmaleficia ("sorcery") was rooted in the work of Satan.[152] In the mid-sixteenth century, the panic spread to England and Switzerland.[148] Both Protestants and Catholics alike firmly believed in witchcraft as a real phenomenon and supported its prosecution.[153][154] In the late 1500s, the Dutch demonologistJohann Weyer argued in his treatiseDe praestigiis daemonum that witchcraft did not exist,[155] but that Satan promoted belief in it to lead Christians astray.[155] The panic over witchcraft intensified in the 1620s and continued until the end of the 1600s.[148] Brian Levack estimates that around 60,000 people were executed for witchcraft during the entire span of the witchcraft hysteria.[148]
The early English settlers of North America, especially thePuritans ofNew England, believed that Satan "visibly and palpably" reigned in theNew World.[156]John Winthrop claimed that the Devil made rebellious Puritan women give birth tostillborn monsters with claws, sharp horns, and "on each foot three claws, like a young fowl".[157]Cotton Mather wrote that devils swarmed around Puritan settlements "like thefrogs of Egypt".[158] The Puritans believed that theNative Americans were worshippers of Satan[159] and described them as "children of the Devil".[156] Some settlers claimed to have seen Satan himself appear in the flesh at native ceremonies.[158] During theFirst Great Awakening, the "new light" preachers portrayed their "old light" critics as ministers of Satan.[160] By the time of theSecond Great Awakening, Satan's primary role inAmerican evangelicalism was as the opponent of the evangelical movement itself, who spent most of his time trying to hinder the ministries of evangelical preachers,[161] a role he has largely retained among present-dayAmerican fundamentalists.[162]
By the early 1600s, skeptics in Europe, including the English authorReginald Scot and the Anglican bishopJohn Bancroft, had begun to criticize the belief that demons still had the power to possess people.[163] This skepticism was bolstered by the belief thatmiracles only occurred during theApostolic Age, which had long since ended.[164] Later,Enlightenment thinkers, such asDavid Hume,Denis Diderot, andVoltaire, attacked the notion of Satan's existence altogether.[165] Voltaire labelledJohn Milton'sParadise Lost a "disgusting fantasy"[165] and declared that belief inHell and Satan were among the many lies propagated by the Catholic Church to keep humanity enslaved.[165] By the eighteenth century, trials for witchcraft had ceased in most western countries, with the notable exceptions ofPoland andHungary, where they continued.[166] Belief in the power of Satan, however, remained strong among traditional Christians.[166]
Mormonism developed its own views on Satan. According to theBook of Moses, the Devil offered to be the redeemer of mankind for the sake of his own glory. Conversely, Jesus offered to be the redeemer of mankind so that his father's will would be done. After his offer was rejected, Satan became rebellious and was subsequently cast out of heaven.[167] In the Book of Moses,Cain is said to have "loved Satan more than God"[168] and conspired with Satan to killAbel. It was through this pact that Cain became aMaster Mahan.[169] The Book of Moses also says thatMoses was tempted by Satan before calling upon the name of the "Only Begotten", which caused Satan to depart.Douglas Davies asserts that this text "reflects" the temptation of Jesus in the Bible.[170]
Belief in Satan and demonic possession remains strong among Christians in the United States[171][172][173] andLatin America.[174] According to a 2013 poll conducted byYouGov, fifty-seven percent of people in the United States believe in a literal Devil,[171] compared to eighteen percent of people in Britain.[171] Fifty-one percent of Americans believe that Satan has the power to possess people.[171] W. Scott Poole, author ofSatan in America: The Devil We Know, has opined that "In the United States over the last forty to fifty years, a composite image of Satan has emerged that borrows from both popular culture and theological sources" and that most American Christians do not "separate what they know [about Satan] from the movies from what they know from various ecclesiastical and theological traditions".[157] The Catholic Church generally played down Satan and exorcism during late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries,[174] butPope Francis brought renewed focus on the Devil in the early 2010s, stating, among many other pronouncements, that "The devil is intelligent, he knows more theology than all the theologians together."[174][175] According to theEncyclopædia Britannica,liberal Christianity tends to view Satan "as a [figurative] mythological attempt to express the reality and extent of evil in the universe, existing outside and apart from humanity but profoundly influencing the human sphere".[176]
Bernard McGinn describes multiple traditions detailing the relationship between theAntichrist and Satan.[177] In the dualist approach, Satan will become incarnate in the Antichrist, just asGod became incarnate in Jesus.[177] However, inOrthodox Christian thought, this view is problematic because it is too similar to Christ's incarnation.[177] Instead, the "indwelling" view has become more accepted,[177] which stipulates that the Antichrist is a human figure inhabited by Satan,[177] since the latter's power is not to be seen as equivalent to God's.[177]
TheArabic equivalent of the wordSatan isShaitan (شيطان, from thetriliteral root š-ṭ-n شطن). The word itself is anadjective (meaning "astray" or "distant", sometimes translated as "devil") that can be applied to bothman ("al-ins", الإنس) andal-jinn (الجن), but it is also used in reference to Satan in particular. In theQuran, Satan's name isIblis (Arabic pronunciation:[ˈibliːs]), probably a derivative of the Greek worddiabolos.[178] Muslims do not regard Satan as the cause of evil, but as a tempter, who takes advantage of humans' inclinations toward self-centeredness.[179]
Quran
Illustration from a manuscript subsection ofBal'ami's Persian translation of theAnnals, showing Satan (Iblis) refusing to prostrate before the newly created man (Adam)
Sevenchapters in the Quran describe howGod ordered all theangels and Iblis to bow before the newly created human,Adam.[11][180][178] All the angels bowed, but Iblis refused,[11][180][178] claiming to be superior to Adam because he was made from fire, whereas Adam was made from clay (7:12).[178] Consequently, God expelled him fromParadise[11][178] and condemned him toJahannam.[181][178] Iblis thereafter became akafir, "an ungrateful disbeliever",[11] whose sole mission is to lead humanity astray.[11] (Q17:62) God allows Iblis to do this,[11][182] because he knows that the righteous will be able to resist Iblis's attempts to misguide them.[11] OnJudgement Day, while the lot of Satan remains in question,[183] those who followed him will be thrown into the fires of Jahannam.[181][178] After his banishment from Paradise, Iblis, who thereafter became known asAl-Shaitan ("the Demon"),[181] luredAdam and Eve intoeating theforbidden fruit.[181][178][184]
The primary characteristic of Satan, aside from hishubris anddespair, is his ability to cast evil suggestions (waswās) into men and women.[185]15:45 states that Satan has no influence over the righteous,[186] but that those who fall in error are under his power.[186]7:156 implies that those who obey God's laws are immune to the temptations of Satan.[186]56:79 warns that Satan tries to keep Muslims from reading the Quran[187] and16:98–100 recommends reciting the Quran as an antidote against Satan.[187]35:6 refers to Satan as the enemy of humanity[187] and36:60 forbids humans from worshipping him.[187] In the Quranic retelling of the story ofJob, Job knows that Satan is the one tormenting him.[187]
Islamic tradition
Affiliation
The angels meet Adam, and their body language reveals they share, albeit to a lesser degree, the defiant reaction of Iblīs, who stands at the back haughtily turning his head away. According to some traditions, God created Iblīs as a beautiful angel namedʿAzāzīl and he is depicted here as such. He is portrayed with his characteristic darker skin to denote his impending fall but has wings of an angel and wears the contemporary 'angelic hairstyle', a loop of hair tied on top of the head.
In the Quran, Satan is apparently an angel,[178] while, in18:50, he is described as "from the jinns".[178] This, combined with the fact that he describes himself as having been made from fire, posed a major problem forMuslim exegetes of the Quran,[178] who disagree on whether Satan is a fallen angel or the leader of a group of evil jinn.[188] According to a hadith fromIbn Abbas, Iblis was actually an angel whom God created out of fire. Ibn Abbas asserts that the wordjinn could be applied to earthly jinn, but also to "fiery angels" like Satan.[189][190]
Hasan of Basra, an eminent Muslim theologian who lived in the seventh century AD, was quoted as saying: "Iblis was not an angel even for the time of an eye wink. He is the origin of Jinn as Adam is of Mankind."[191] The medieval Persian scholarAbu al-Zamakhshari states that the wordsangels andjinn are synonyms.[192] Another Persian scholar,al-Baydawi, instead argues that Satan was an angel in essence, but behaved like the jinn.[192][193][194]Abu Mansur al-Maturidi who is revered as the founder ofMāturīdiyyaSunni orthodoxy (kalam) argued that since angels can be blessed by God, they are also put to a test and can be punished. Accordingly, Satan became a devil (shaiṭān) or jinn after he refused to obey.[195] TheTarikh Khamis narrates that Satan was a jinn who was admitted into Paradise as a reward for his righteousness and, unlike the angels, was given the choice to obey or disobey God.[196] When he was expelled from Paradise, Satan blamed humanity for his punishment.[197]
Concerning the fiery origin of Iblis, al-Baydawi asserts that fire and light are of the same substance but with different attributes and thus, there is no real difference.[198][194] Similarly, the historianZakariya al-Qazwini and also Muhammad ibn Ahmad Ibshihi state that there is no fundamental difference between light and fire, for all supernatural creatures were created from fire, but the angels from its light and the jinn from its blaze.[199][200]Abd al-Ghani al-Maqdisi andIbn Barrajan argued that only the angels of mercy are created from light, butangels of punishment have been created from fire.[201][202]
The Muslim historian and theologianAl-Tabari, who died in around 923 AD,[178] writes that, before Adam was created, earthly jinn made of smokeless fire roamed the earth and spread corruption.[203] He further relates that Iblis was originally an angel namedAzazil orAl-Harith,[204] from a group of angels, created from thefires of simoom,[205] sent by God to confront the earthly jinn.[206][178] Azazil defeated the jinn in battle and drove them into the mountains,[206] but he became convinced that he was superior to humans and all the other angels, leading to his downfall.[206] In this account, Azazil's group of angels were calledjinn because they guardedJannah (Paradise).[207] In another tradition recorded by Al-Tabari, Satan was one of the earthly jinn, who was taken captive by the angels[186][178] and brought to Heaven as a prisoner.[186][178] God appointed him as judge over the other jinn and he became known asAl-Hakam.[186] He fulfilled his duty for a thousand years before growing negligent,[178] but was rehabilitated again and resumed his position until his refusal to bow before Adam.[178]
Other traditions
A stoning of the Devil from 1942
During the first two centuries of Islam, Muslims almost unanimously accepted the traditional story known as theSatanic Verses as true.[208] According to this narrative,Muhammad was told by Satan to add words to the Quran which would allow Muslims to pray for the intercession of pagan goddesses.[209] He mistook the words of Satan fordivine inspiration.[208] Modern Muslims almost universally reject this story as heretical, as it calls the integrity of the Quran into question.[210]
On the third day of theHajj, Muslim pilgrims toMecca throw seven stones at a pillar known as theJamrah al-’Aqabah, symbolizing thestoning of the Devil.[211] This ritual is based on the Islamic tradition that, when God orderedAbraham to sacrifice his sonIshmael, Satan tempted him three times not to do it, and, each time, Abraham responded by throwing seven stones at him.[211][212]
Thehadith teach that newborn babies cry because Satan touches them while they are being born, and that this touch causes people to have an aptitude for sin.[213] This doctrine bears some similarities to the doctrine oforiginal sin.[213] Muslim tradition holds that onlyJesus andMary were not touched by Satan at birth.[213] However, when he was a boy, Muhammad'sheart was literally opened by an angel, who removed a blackclot that symbolized sin.[213]
Muslim tradition preserves a number of stories involving dialogues between Jesus and Iblis,[206] all of which are intended to demonstrate Jesus's virtue and Satan's depravity.[214]Ahmad ibn Hanbal records an Islamic retelling of Jesus's temptation by Satan in the desert from the Synoptic Gospels.[206] Ahmad quotes Jesus as saying, "The greatest sin is love of the world. Women are the ropes of Satan. Wine is the key to every evil."[214]Abu Uthman al-Jahiz credits Jesus with saying, "The world is Satan's farm, and its people are his plowmen."[206]Al-Ghazali tells an anecdote about how Jesus went out one day and saw Satan carrying ashes and honey;[215] when he asked what they were for, Satan replied, "The honey I put on the lips of backbiters so that they achieve their aim. The ashes I put on the faces of orphans, so that people come to dislike them."[215] The thirteenth-century scholarSibt ibn al-Jawzi states that, when Jesus asked him what truly broke his back, Satan replied, "The neighing of horses in the cause ofAllah."[215]
Muslims believe that Satan is also the cause of deceptions originating from the mind and desires for evil. He is regarded as a cosmic force for separation, despair and spiritual envelopment. Muslims do distinguish between the satanic temptations and the murmurings of the bodily lower self (nafs). The lower self commands the person to do a specific task or to fulfill a specific desire; whereas the inspirations of Satan tempt the person to do evil in general and, after a person successfully resists his first suggestion, Satan returns with new ones.[216] If a Muslim feels that Satan is inciting him to sin, he is advised to seek refuge with God by reciting: "In the name of Allah, I seek refuge in you, from Satan the outcast." Muslims are also obliged to "seek refuge" before reciting the Quran.[217]
Islamic mysticism
According to some adherents ofSufi mysticism, Iblis refused to bow to Adam because he was fully devoted to God alone and refused to bow to anyone else.[218][192] For this reason, Sufi masters regard Satan and Muhammad as the two most perfect monotheists.[218] Sufis reject the concept ofdualism[218][219] and instead believe in theunity of existence.[219] In the same way that Muhammad was the instrument of God's mercy,[218] Sufis regard Satan as the instrument of God's wrath.[218] For the Muslim Sufi scholarAhmad Ghazali, Iblis was the paragon of lovers in self-sacrifice for refusing to bow down to Adam out of pure devotion to God.[220] Ahmad Ghazali's studentSheikh Adi ibn Musafir was among the Sunni Muslim mystics who defended Iblis and asserted that evil was also God's creation. Sheikh Adi argued that if evil existed without the will of God, then God would be powerless and powerlessness can't be attributed to God.[221] Some Sufis assert that since Iblis was destined by God to become a devil, God will also restore him to his former angelic nature.Attar compares Iblis's damnation to the BiblicalBenjamin: both were accused unjustly, but their punishment had a greater meaning. In the end, Iblis will be released from hell.[222]
However, not all Muslim Sufi mystics are in agreement with a positive depiction of Iblis.Rumi's viewpoint on Iblis is much more in tune with Islamic orthodoxy. Rumi views Iblis as the manifestation of thegreat sins ofhaughtiness andenvy. He states: "(Cunning) intelligence is from Iblis, and love from Adam."[223]
Baháʼí Faith
In theBaháʼí Faith, Satan is not regarded as an independent evil power as he is in some faiths, but signifies thelower nature of humans.[6][7]`Abdu'l-Bahá explains: "This lower nature in man is symbolized as Satan—the evil ego within us, not an evil personality outside."[6][7] All other evil spirits described in various faith traditions—such asfallen angels,demons, andjinns—are also metaphors for the base character traits a human being may acquire and manifest when he turns away from God.[224] Actions that are described as "satanic" in some Baháʼí writings denote humans' deeds caused by selfish desires.[225]
Nontheistic Satanism, as exemplified byLaVeyan Satanism (practiced by theChurch of Satan andFirst Satanic Church) andThe Satanic Temple, holds that Satan does not exist as a literal anthropomorphic entity, but rather as asymbol of acosmos which Satanists perceive to be permeated and motivated by a force that has been given many names by humans over the course of time. In this religion, "Satan" is not viewed or depicted as a hubristic, irrational, and fraudulent creature, but rather is revered withPrometheus-like attributes, symbolizing liberty and individual empowerment. To adherents, he also serves as a conceptual framework and an external metaphorical projection of the Satanist's highest personal potential.[227] In his essay "Satanism: The Feared Religion", the current High Priest of the Church of Satan,Peter H. Gilmore, further expounds that "...Satan is a symbol of Man living as his prideful, carnal nature dictates. The reality behind Satan is simply the dark evolutionary force ofentropy that permeates all of nature and provides the drive for survival and propagation inherent in all living things. Satan is not a conscious entity to be worshiped, rather a reservoir of power inside each human to be tapped at will".[228]
LaVeyan Satanists embrace the original etymological meaning of the word "Satan" (Hebrew: שָּׂטָןsatan, meaning "adversary"). According to Gilmore, "The Church of Satan has chosen Satan as its primary symbol because in Hebrew it means adversary, opposer, one to accuse or question. We see ourselves as being these Satans; the adversaries, opposers and accusers of all spiritual belief systems that would try to hamper enjoyment of our life as a human being."[229]
Post-LaVeyan Satanists, like the adherents of The Satanic Temple, argue that the human animal has a natural altruistic and communal tendency, and frame Satan as a figure of struggle against injustice and activism. They also believe in bodily autonomy, that personal beliefs should conform to science and inspire nobility, and that people should atone for their mistakes.[230]
Theistic Satanism
Theistic Satanism, otherwise referred to as spiritual Satanism, or devil worship,[231][232] views Satan as adeity, whom individuals may supplicate to.[233][234] It consists of loosely affiliated or independent groups and cabals, which all agree that Satan is a real entity.[235]
The main deity in the tentativelyIndo-European pantheon of theYazidis,Melek Taus, is similar to the devil in Islamic and Christian traditions, as he refused to bow down before humanity.[236][237] Therefore,Muslims andChristians often consider Melek Taus to be Satan.[236][237] However, rather than being Satanic, Yazidism can be understood as a remnant of a pre-IslamicMiddle Eastern Indo-European religion, and/or aghulatSufi movement founded byShaykh Adi. In fact, there is no entity in Yazidism which represents evil in opposition to God; suchdualism is rejected by Yazidis.[238]
In theMiddle Ages, theCathars, practitioners of adualistic religion, were accused of worshipping Satan by theCatholic Church.Pope Gregory IX stated in his workVox in Rama that the Cathars believed that God had erred in castingLucifer out of heaven and that Lucifer would return to reward his faithful. On the other hand, according to Catharism, thecreator god of the material world worshipped by the Catholic Church is actually Satan.[239]
Wicca is a modern,syncreticNeopagan religion[240] whose practitioners many Christians have incorrectly assumed to worship Satan.[240] In actuality, Wiccans do not believe in the existence of Satan or any analogous figure[240] and have repeatedly and emphatically rejected the notion that they venerate such an entity.[240]
The cult of the skeletal figure ofSanta Muerte, which has grown exponentially in Mexico,[241][242] has been denounced by the Catholic Church as devil worship.[243] However, devotees of Santa Muerte view her as anangel of death created by God,[244] and many of them identify as Catholic.[245]
Much modern folklore about Satanism does not originate from the actual beliefs or practices of theistic Satanists, but rather from a mixture of medieval Christian folk beliefs, political or sociological conspiracy theories, and contemporaryurban legends.[246][247][248][249] An example is the "Satanic ritual abuse" scare of the 1980s—beginning with the memoirMichelle Remembers—which depicted Satanism as a vastconspiracy of elites with a predilection forchild abuse andhuman sacrifice.[247][248] This genre frequently describes Satan as physically incarnating in order to receive worship.[249]
Satan's appearance is not described in the Bible or in early Christian writings,[252][251] thoughPaul the Apostle does write that "Satan disguises himself as an angel of light" (2 Corinthians 11:14).[253] Satan was never shown inearly Christian artwork[252][251] and may have first appeared in the sixth century in one of the mosaics of theBasilica of Sant'Apollinare Nuovo. The mosaic "Christ the Good Sheppard" features a blue-violet angel at the left hand side of Christ behind three goats.[254]
Depictions of Satan became more common in the ninth century,[255][256] where he is shown with cloven hooves, hairy legs, the tail of a goat, pointed ears, a beard, a flat nose, and a set of horns.[250][251][140] Satan may have first become associated with goats through theParable of the Sheep and the Goats, recorded inMatthew 25:31–46,[257] in which Jesus separates sheep (representing the saved) from goats (representing the damned); the damned are thrown into an "everlasting fire" along with Satan and his angels.[76]
Medieval Christians were known to adapt previously existing pagan iconography to suit depictions of Christian figures.[250][251] Much of Satan's traditional iconography in Christianity appears to be derived fromPan,[250][251] a rustic, goat-legged fertility god inancient Greek religion.[250][251] Early Christian writers such asSaint Jerome equated the Greeksatyrs and the Romanfauns, whom Pan resembled, with demons.[250][251] Satan's pitchfork appears to have been adapted from thetrident wielded by the Greek godPoseidon[251] and Satan's flame-like hair seems to have originated from the Egyptian godBes.[251] By theHigh Middle Ages, Satan and devils appear in all works of Christian art: in paintings, sculptures, and on cathedrals.[258] Satan is usually depicted naked,[251] but his genitals are rarely shown and are often covered by animal furs.[251] The goat-like portrayal of Satan was especially closely associated with him in his role as the object of worship by sorcerers[259] and as theincubus, a demon believed to rape human women in their sleep.[259]
Italian frescoes from the late Middle Ages onward frequently show Satan chained in Hell, feeding on the bodies of the perpetually damned.[260] These frescoes are early enough to have inspired Dante's portrayal in hisInferno.[260] As the serpent in the Garden of Eden, Satan is often shown as a snake with arms and legs as well as the head and full-breasted upper torso of a woman.[261] Satan and his demons could take any form in medieval art,[262] but, when appearing in their true form, they were often shown as short, hairy, black-skinned humanoids with clawed and bird feet and extra faces on their chests, bellies, genitals, buttocks, and tails.[262] The modern popular culture image of Satan as a well-dressed gentleman with small horns and a tail originates from portrayals of Mephistopheles in the operasLa damnation de Faust (1846) byHector Berlioz,Mefistofele (1868) byArrigo Boito, andFaust byCharles Gounod.[259]
Illustrations of Satan in Islamic paintings often depict him black-faced, a feature which would later symbolize any satanic figure or heretic, and with a black body, to symbolize his corrupted nature. Another common depiction of Iblis shows him wearing a special head covering, clearly different from the traditional Islamic turban. In one painting, however, Iblis wears a traditional Islamic head covering.[263] The turban probably refers to a narration of Iblis' fall: there he wore a turban, then he was sent down from heaven.[264] Many other pictures show and describe Iblis at the moment when the angels prostrate themselves before Adam. Here, he is usually seen beyond the outcrop, his face transformed, with his wings burned, to the envious countenance of a devil.[265] Iblis and his cohorts (div orshayatin) are often portrayed in Turko-Persian art as bangled creatures with flaming eyes, only covered by a short skirt. Similar to European artists, who took traits of pagan deities to depict devils, they depicted such demons often in a similar fashion to that of Hindu deities.[266]
In literature
If he was once as handsome as he now is ugly and, despite that, raised his brows against his Maker, one can understand, how every sorrow has its source in him!
InDante Alighieri'sInferno,Satan appears as a giant demon, frozen mid-breast in ice at the center of theNinth Circle of Hell.[267][268] Satan has three faces and a pair of bat-like wings affixed under each chin.[269] In his three mouths, Satan gnaws onBrutus, Judas Iscariot, andCassius,[269] whom Dante regarded as having betrayed the "two greatest heroes of the human race":[270]Julius Caesar, the founder of the new order of government, and Jesus, the founder of the new order of religion.[270] As Satan beats his wings, he creates a cold wind that continues to freeze the ice surrounding him and the other sinners in the Ninth Circle.[269] Dante andVirgil climb up Satan's shaggy legs until gravity is reversed and they fall through the earth into the southern hemisphere.[270]
John Milton'sepic poemParadise Lost featuresSatan as its main protagonist.[275][276] Milton portrays Satan as a tragicantihero destroyed by his ownhubris.[276] The poem, which draws extensive inspiration fromGreek tragedy,[277] recreates Satan as a complex literary character,[278] who dares to rebel against the "tyranny" of God[279][280] in spite of God's ownomnipotence.[279][281] The English poet and painterWilliam Blake famously quipped that "The reason Milton wrote in fetters when he wrote of Angels & God, and at liberty when of Devils & Hell, is because he was a true poet and of the Devils party without knowing it."[282]Paradise Regained, the sequel toParadise Lost, is a retelling of Satan's temptation of Jesus in the desert.[283]
William Blake regarded Satan as a model ofrebellion againstunjust authority[165] and featured him in many of his poems and illustrations,[165] including his 1780 bookThe Marriage of Heaven and Hell,[165] in which Satan is celebrated as the ultimate rebel, the incarnation of human emotion and the epitome of freedom from all forms ofreason andorthodoxy.[165] Based on the Biblical passages portraying Satan as the accuser of sin,[284] Blake interpreted Satan as "a promulgator of moral laws".[284]
References to Satan in music can be dated back to the Middle Ages.Giuseppe Tartini was inspired to write his most famous work, theViolin Sonata in G minor, also known as "The Devil's Trill", after dreaming of the Devil playing the violin. Tartini claimed that the sonata was a lesser imitation of what the Devil had played in his dream.[285]Niccolò Paganini was believed to have derived his musical talent from a deal with the Devil.[286]Charles Gounod'sFaust features a narrative that involves Satan.[287]
In the early 1900s,jazz andblues became known as the "Devil's Music" as they were considered "dangerous and unholy".[287] According to legend, blues musicianTommy Johnson was a terrible guitarist before exchanging his soul to the Devil for a guitar. Later,Robert Johnson claimed that he had sold his soul in return for becoming a great blues guitarist.[288] Satanic symbolism appears inrock music from the 1960s.Mick Jagger assumes the role of Lucifer inthe Rolling Stones' "Sympathy for the Devil" (1968),[287] whileBlack Sabbath portrayed the Devil in numerous songs, including "War Pigs" (1970) and "N.I.B." (1970).[289]
The Devil is depicted as avampire bat inGeorges Méliès'The Haunted Castle (1896),[290] which is often considered the firsthorror film.[291] So-called "Black Masses" have been portrayed in sensationalistB-movies since the 1960s.[292] One of the first films to portray such a ritual was the 1965 filmEye of the Devil, also known as13.Alex Sanders, a former black magician, served as a consultant on the film to ensure that the rituals portrayed in it were depicted accurately.[293] Over the next thirty years, the novels ofDennis Wheatley and the films ofHammer Film Productions both played a major role in shaping the popular image of Satanism.[292]
^In many cases, the translators of theSeptuagint, the pre-Christian translation of theHebrew Bible intoancient Greek, chose to render the Hebrew wordsâtan as the Greek wordδιάβολος (diábolos), meaning "opponent" or "accuser".[3][2] This is the root of the modern English wordDevil.[2][4] Both the wordssatanas anddiábolos are used interchangeably in the New Testament and in later Christian writings.[2] ThePauline epistles and theGospel of Mark both use the wordsatanas more frequently thandiábolos,[2][5] but theGospel of Matthew uses the worddiábolos more frequently and so do theChurch FathersJustin Martyr,Irenaeus, andOrigen.[2]
^The LatinVulgate translation of this passage rendersHeylel as "Lucifer"[64] and this name continues to be used by some Christians as an alternative name for Satan.[64]
^Stephen M. Hooks – 2007 "As in Zechariah 3:1–2 the term here carries the definite article (has'satan="the satan") and functions not as a...the only place in the Hebrew Bible where the term "Satan" is unquestionably used as a proper name is1 Chronicles 21:1."
^Coogan, Michael D.;A Brief Introduction to the Old Testament: The Hebrew Bible in Its Context, Oxford University Press, 2009
^Peter Clark,Zoroastrianism: An Introduction to Ancient Faith 1998, p. 152 "There are so many features that Zoroastrianism seems to share with the Judeo-Christian tradition that it would be difficult to deny some relationship between them"
^Winn, Shan M.M. (1995).Heaven, heroes, and happiness : the Indo-European roots of Western ideology. Lanham, Md.: University press of America. p. 203.ISBN0-8191-9860-9.
^Introduction to the Book of Jubilees,15. Theology. Some of our Author's Views: Demonology, by R.H. Charles.
^2 Enoch 18:3. On this tradition, see A. Orlov, "The Watchers of Satanael: The Fallen Angels Traditions in 2 (Slavonic) Enoch", in: A. Orlov,Dark Mirrors: Azazel and Satanael in Early Jewish Demonology (Albany: SUNY, 2011) 85–106.
^"And I threw him out from the height with his angels, and he was flying in the air continuously above the bottomless" –2 Enoch 29:4
^"The devil is the evil spirit of the lower places, as a fugitive he made Sotona from the heavens as his name was Satanail, thus he became different from the angels, but his nature did not change his intelligence as far as his understanding of righteous and sinful things" –2 Enoch 31:4
^Alexander Altmann, Alfred L. Ivry, Elliot R. Wolfson, Allan ArkushPerspectives on Jewish Thought and Mysticism Taylor & Francis 1998ISBN978-9-057-02194-7 p. 268
^Bamberger, Bernard J. (2006).Fallen angels : soldiers of satan's realm (1 paperback ed.). Philadelphia, Pa.: Jewish Publ. Soc. of America. pp. 148, 149.ISBN0-8276-0797-0.
^Robert Eisen Associate Professor of Religious Studies George Washington UniversityThe Book of Job in Medieval Jewish Philosophy 2004 p. 120 "Moreover, Zerahfiiah gives us insight into the parallel between the Garden of Eden story and the Job story alluded to ... both Satan and Job's wife are metaphors for the evil inclination, a motif Zerahfiiah seems to identify with the imagination."
^Ronald L. EisenbergDictionary of Jewish Terms: A Guide to the Language of Judaism Taylor Trade Publications 2011;ISBN978-1-589-79729-1, p. 356.
^Rabbi Rachel TimonerBreath of Life: God as Spirit in Judaism Paraclete Press 2011;ISBN978-1-557-25899-1
^Georges TamerIslam and Rationality: The Impact of al-Ghazālī. Papers Collected on His 900th Anniversary, Band 1 BRILL 2015ISBN978-9-004-29095-2 page 103
^ibn ʿUmar al-Baydawi, ʿAbd Allah (2016). The Lights Of Revelation And The Secrets Of Interpretation. Translated by Haddad, Gibril Fouad. Beacon Books and Media Limited. ISBN 978-0-9926335-7-8. p. 543
^abIqbal, Muzaffar. "Integrated Encyclopedia of the Qur'ān." The center of Islamic Sciences (2013). p. 180
^Chodkiewicz, Michel. "Satan's Tragedy and Redemption: Iblis in Sufi Psychology." (1983): 30.
^Amira El-ZeinIslam, Arabs, and Intelligent World of the Jinn Syracuse University Press 2009ISBN978-0-8156-5070-6 page 46
^ibn ʿUmar al-Baydawi, ʿAbd Allah (2016). The Lights Of Revelation And The Secrets Of Interpretation. Translated by Haddad, Gibril Fouad. Beacon Books and Media Limited. ISBN 978-0-9926335-7-8. p. 547-548
^Tobias NünlistDämonenglaube im Islam Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG, 2015ISBN978-3-110-33168-4 p.49 (German)
^Seyyed Hossein NasrIslamic Life and Thought Routledge 2013ISBN978-1-134-53818-8 page 135
^Victoria Arakelova, Garnik S.Asatrian (2014).The Religion of the Peacock angel The Yezidis and their spirit world. Routledge. p. 38.ISBN978-1-84465-761-2.
^Awn, Peter J. (1983). Satan's Tragedy and Redemption: Iblīs in Sufi Psychology. Leiden, Germany: Brill Publishers. p. 177ISBN978-9004069060.
^Schimmel, Annemarie (1993).The Triumphal Sun: A Study of the Works of Jalaloddin Rumi. Albany, New York:SUNY Press. p. 255.ISBN978-0-791-41635-8.
^Cinema of the Occult: New Age, Satanism, Wicca, and Spiritualism in Film, Carrol Lee Fry, Associated University Presse, 2008,pp. 92–98
^abEncyclopedia of Urban Legends, Updated and Expanded Edition, by Jan Harold Brunvand, ABC-CLIO, 31 Jul 2012pp. 694–695
^abRaising the Devil: Satanism, New Religions, and the Media, by Bill Ellis, University Press of Kentuckyp. 125 In discussing myths about groups accused of Satanism, "...such myths are already pervasive inWestern culture, and the development of the modern "Satanic Scare" would be impossible to explain without showing how these myths helped organize concerns and beliefs". Accusations of Satanism are traced from thewitch hunts, to theIlluminati, to theSatanic panic in the 1980s, with a distinction made between what modern Satanists believe and what is believed about Satanists.
^Brosh, Na'ama; Milstein, Rachel; Yiśraʼel, Muzeʼon (1991).Biblical stories in Islamic painting. Jerusalem:Israel Museum. p. 27.ASINB0006F66PC.
^ibn Muḥammad Thaʻlabī, Aḥmad; Brinner, William M. (2002).ʻArāʻis al-majālis fī qiṣaṣ al-anbiyā, or: Lives of the prophets, Band 24. Leiden, Netherlands:Brill Publishers. p. 69.ISBN978-9-004-12589-6.
^Melion, Walter; Zell, Michael; Woodall, Joanna (2017).Ut pictura amor: The Reflexive Imagery of Love in Artistic Theory and Practice, 1500–1700. Leiden, Netherlands:Brill Publishers. p. 240.ISBN978-9-004-34646-8.
^L. Lewisohn, C. Shackle (2006).Attar and the Persian Sufi Tradition: The Art of Spiritual Flight. Bloomsbury Publishing. pp. 156–158.ISBN9781786730183.
Caldwell, William. "The Doctrine of Satan: I. In the Old Testament",The Biblical World, Vol. 41, No. 1 (Jan., 1913), pp. 29–33in JSTOR
Caldwell, William. "The Doctrine of Satan: II. Satan in Extra-Biblical Apocalyptical Literature",The Biblical World, Vol. 41, No. 2 (Feb., 1913), pp. 98–102in JSTOR
Caldwell, William. "The Doctrine of Satan: III. In the New Testament",The Biblical World, Vol. 41, No. 3 (Mar., 1913), pp. 167–172in JSTOR
Davies, Douglas J. (2010).Fallen Joseph Smith, Jesus, and Satanic Opposition: Atonement, Evil and the Mormon Vision. University of Durham, UK.ISBN978-1-4094-0830-7.
Osborne, B. A. E. "Peter: Stumbling-Block and Satan",Novum Testamentum, Vol. 15, Fasc. 3 (Jul., 1973), pp. 187–190in JSTOR on "Get thee behind me, Satan!"
Rebhorn Wayne A. "The Humanist Tradition and Milton's Satan: The Conservative as Revolutionary",SEL: Studies in English Literature 1500–1900, Vol. 13, No. 1, The English Renaissance (Winter, 1973), pp. 81–93in JSTOR
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