TheTwelve Conclusions of the Lollards is aMiddle English religious text written in 1395 containing statements by leaders of the English medieval movement, theLollards, inspired by some of the teachings ofJohn Wycliffe.[1][2][3] The text was presented to theParliament of England and nailed to the doors ofWestminster Abbey andSt Paul's Cathedral as a placard (a typical medieval method for publishing).[1][4] The manifesto suggests the expanded treatiseThirty-Seven Conclusions (Thirty-seven Articles against Corruptions in the Church),[a][5] for those that wished more in-depth information.[6][verification needed]
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The text summarizes twelve areas in which the Lollards argued that the institutional Christian Church in England needed to be reformed by parliament: the church being "leprous and blind under the maintenance of the proud prelates" bolstered by the flattering of monks ("private religion".)[b][4][7][8]
The first conclusion asserts that the English Church has become too involved in affairs of temporal power, led by the badexample of the Church of Rome, its stepmother, deadly sins that remove its legitimacy[4] (see the portions of the translation with the phrasing "to dote in temperalte, and "challengith the title of heritage").
The second conclusion asserts that theceremonies used for theordination of priests and bishops are without scriptural basis and not the priesthood into which Christ ordained the apostles.[4] ("For the presthood of Rome is mad (made) with signis, rytis, and bisschopis blissingis." Holy orders are "the leveree (livery)of antecryst.")
The third conclusion asserts that the practice ofclerical celibacy has encouragedsodomy among the clergy and monks, such that churchmen need purgation or worse from their lifestyles[4]—i.e., of decadent "delicious metis and drinkis"; men who like these "like non wymmen".
The fourth conclusion asserts that the doctrine oftransubstantiation induces idolatry (of the communion bread),[4] suggesting that "Frere Thomas" (Aquinas)'Feast of Corpus Christi service is "untrewe".
The fifth conclusion asserts that theexorcisms andhallowings of substances, objects and pilgrims' staves carried out by priests are a practice ofnecromancy (shamanism) rather than of Christian theology, asserting that nothing can be changed to be of higher virtue than its kind.[4]
The sixth conclusion asserts that it is prideful for men who hold high spiritual office in the Church to simultaneously hold positions of great temporal power[4]—"Us thinketh that hermofodrite or ambidexter were a god name for sich manere of men of duble astate."—and that parliament should fully excuse all curates—"bothe heye and lowe"—from temporal office, so they can look after the cure of souls and nothing else.[4]
The seventh conclusion asserts thatprayers for the souls of specific individual deceased persons is uncharitable, since it implicitly excludes all the other blessed dead who are not being prayed for, and that the practice ofrequesting prayers for the dead by making financial contributions is a sort of bribery that corrupts the Church, asserting that the industry of prayers for the dead is simony and idleness:[4] "all almes houses of Ingolond ben wikkidly igrounded".
The eighth conclusion asserts that the practices ofpilgrimage, images, crucifixes, images of the trinity, and theveneration of relics approach idolatry and are far from alms-giving, and that offerings should be given instead as alms to the needy, who are "the image of God in a more likenesse" than the stick or the stone.[4]
The ninth conclusion asserts that the practice ofconfession for the absolution of sins is blasphemous because only God has the power to forgive sins and because if priests did have that power it would be cruel and uncharitable of them to withhold that forgiveness from anyone, even if they refused to confess.[4]
The tenth conclusion asserts that, absent a special revelation,Christians should refrain from battle and in particular wars that are given religious justifications, such ascrusades, are blasphemous because Christ taught men tolove and forgive their enemies, likewise the knights who seek to slay heathens for glory (i.e., Crusaders); moreover, it asserts that lords who purchase indulgences for their army's actions are robbing the poor of those funds.[4]
The eleventh conclusion asserts thatnuns in the Church who have made vows of celibacy should be married, rather than being fickle, becoming pregnant and then seekingabortions—referred to as "the most horrible synne possible to man kynde"—to conceal the fact that they had broken their vows, all practices the text strongly condemns.[4]
The twelfth conclusion asserts that the multitude of crafts used by the Church causes waste, curiosity (distraction by non-essentials) and "disgysing"; only crafts necessary forsimple living should be tolerated.[4] "Us thinketh that goldsmethis and amoreris and all manere craftis nout nedeful to man…schulde be distroyd."
According to some scholars, the Twelve Conclusions were likely written in Middle English, translated to Latin for presentation to Parliament, and translated to Latin independently again,[9][10] whichJohn Foxe then re-translated back to (Elizabethan, Early Modern) English for hisActs and Monuments collection.[11] This manuscript was edited byJosiah Forshall and published in 1851 by Mr. Longmans.[12]
The so-calledGeneral Prologue of the Wycliffe Bible[c][citation needed] found on some later version (LV) manuscripts (1395) gives an allusion to the LollardTwelve Conclusions by the use of the words "last parliament".[13] It gives an indication that theGeneral Prologue was written in 1395–1397 for the previous parliament that just took place in 1395 and before the next parliament that took place in 1397.[13][14][15] TheTwelve Conclusions and its expanded version ofThirty-Seven Conclusions have been attributed to the presumed author of theGeneral Prologue of the Wycliffe Bible,John Purvey, written 1395.[16]
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