The Method of Mechanical Theorems (Greek:Περὶ μηχανικῶν θεωρημάτων πρὸς Ἐρατοσθένη ἔφοδος), also referred to asThe Method, is one of the major surviving works of theancient GreekpolymathArchimedes.The Method takes the form of a letter from Archimedes toEratosthenes,^[1] the chief librarian at theLibrary of Alexandria, and contains the first attested explicit use ofindivisibles (indivisibles are geometric versions ofinfinitesimals).^[1][2] The work was originally thought to be lost, but in 1906 was rediscovered in the celebratedArchimedes Palimpsest. The palimpsest includes Archimedes' account of the "mechanical method", so called because it relies on thecenter of weights of figures (centroid) and thelaw of the lever, which were demonstrated by Archimedes inOn the Equilibrium of Planes.

Archimedes did not admit themethod of indivisibles as part of rigorous mathematics, and therefore did not publish his method in the formal treatises that contain the results. In these treatises, he proves the same theorems byexhaustion, finding rigorous upper and lower bounds which both converge to the answer required. Nevertheless, the mechanical method was what he used to discover the relations for which he later gave rigorous proofs.

Archimedes' idea is to use the law of the lever to determine the areas of figures from the known center of mass of other figures.^[1]: 8 The simplest example in modern language is the area of the parabola. A modern approach would be to find this area by calculating the integral

$${\displaystyle {\int }_0^1{x}^{2}dx=\frac{1}{3},}$$

which is an elementary result inintegral calculus. Instead, the Archimedean method mechanically balances the parabola (the curved region being integrated above) with a certain triangle that is made of the same material. The parabola is the region in the${\displaystyle (x,y)}$ plane between the${\displaystyle x}$-axis and the curve${\displaystyle y=x^2}$ as${\displaystyle x}$ varies from 0 to 1. The triangle is the region in the same plane between the${\displaystyle x}$-axis and the line${\displaystyle y=x}$, also as${\displaystyle x}$ varies from 0 to 1.

Slice the parabola and triangle into vertical slices, one for each value of${\displaystyle x}$. Imagine that the${\displaystyle x}$-axis is a lever, with a fulcrum at${\displaystyle x=0}$. Thelaw of the lever states that two objects on opposite sides of the fulcrum will balance if each has the sametorque, where an object's torque equals its weight times its distance to the fulcrum. For each value of${\displaystyle x}$, the slice of the triangle at position${\displaystyle x}$ has a mass equal to its height${\displaystyle x}$, and is at a distance${\displaystyle x}$ from the fulcrum; so it would balance the corresponding slice of the parabola, of height${\displaystyle x^2}$, if the latter were moved to${\displaystyle x=-1}$, at a distance of 1 on the other side of the fulcrum.

Since each pair of slices balances, moving the whole parabola to${\displaystyle x=-1}$ would balance the whole triangle. This means that if the original uncut parabola is hung by a hook from the point${\displaystyle x=-1}$ (so that the whole mass of the parabola is attached to that point), it will balance the triangle sitting between${\displaystyle x=0}$ and${\displaystyle x=1}$.

The center of mass of a triangle can be easily found by the following method, also due to Archimedes.^[1]: 14 If amedian line is drawn from any one of the vertices of a triangle to the opposite edge${\displaystyle E}$, the triangle will balance on the median, considered as a fulcrum. The reason is that if the triangle is divided into infinitesimal line segments parallel to${\displaystyle E}$, each segment has equal length on opposite sides of the median, so balance follows by symmetry. This argument can be easily made rigorous byexhaustion by using little rectangles instead of infinitesimal lines, and this is what Archimedes does inOn the Equilibrium of Planes.

So the center of mass of a triangle must be at the intersection point of the medians. For the triangle in question, one median is the line${\displaystyle y=x/2}$, while a second median is the line${\displaystyle y=1-x}$. Solving these equations, we see that the intersection of these two medians is above the point${\displaystyle x=2/3}$, so that the total effect of the triangle on the lever is as if the total mass of the triangle were pushing down on (or hanging from) this point. The total torque exerted by the triangle is its area, 1/2, times the distance 2/3 of its center of mass from the fulcrum at${\displaystyle x=0}$. This torque of 1/3 balances the parabola, which is at a distance 1 from the fulcrum. Hence, the area of the parabola must be 1/3 to give it the opposite torque.

This type of method can be used to find the area of an arbitrary section of a parabola, and similar arguments can be used to find the integral of any power of${\displaystyle x}$, although higher powers become complicated without algebra. Archimedes only went as far as the integral of${\displaystyle x^3}$, which he used to find the center of mass of a hemisphere, and in other work, the center of mass of a parabola.

Consider theparabola in the figure to the right. Pick two points on the parabola and call themA andB.

Suppose the line segmentAC is parallel to the axis of symmetry of the parabola. Further suppose that the line segmentBC lies on a line that istangent to the parabola atB.The first proposition states:^[1]: 14

The area of the triangleABC is exactly three times the area bounded by the parabola and thesecant lineAB.

Proof:^{[1]: 15–18}

LetD be the midpoint ofAC. Construct a line segmentJB throughD, where the distance fromJ toD is equal to the distance fromB toD. We will think of the segmentJB as a "lever" withD as its fulcrum.^[3] As Archimedes had previously shown, the center of mass of the triangle is at the pointI on the "lever" whereDI :DB = 1:3. Therefore, it suffices to show that if the whole weight of the interior of the triangle rests atI, and the whole weight of the section of the parabola atJ, the lever is in equilibrium.

Consider an infinitely small cross-section of the triangle given by the segmentHE, where the pointH lies onBC, the pointE lies onAB, andHE is parallel to the axis of symmetry of the parabola. Call the intersection ofHE and the parabolaF and the intersection ofHE and the leverG. If the weight of all such segmentsHE rest at the pointsG where they intersect the lever, then they exert the same torque on the lever as does the whole weight of the triangle resting at I. Thus, we wish to show that if the weight of the cross-sectionHE rests atG and the weight of the cross-sectionEF of the section of the parabola rests atJ, then the lever is in equilibrium. In other words, it suffices to show thatEF :GD = EH :JD. But that is a routine consequence of the equation of the parabola. Q.E.D.

Again, to illuminate the mechanical method, it is convenient to use a little bit of coordinate geometry.^[4] If a sphere of radius 1 is placed with its center atx = 1, the vertical cross sectional radius${\displaystyle {\rho }_S}$ at anyx between 0 and 2 is given by the following formula:$${\displaystyle {\rho }_S(x)=\sqrt{x(2-x)}.}$$

The mass of this cross section, for purposes of balancing on a lever, is proportional to the area:

$${\displaystyle \pi {\rho }_S(x{)}^2=2\pi x-\pi x^2.}$$

Archimedes then considered rotating the triangular region betweeny = 0 andy = x andx = 2 on thex-y plane around thex-axis, to form a cone.^{[1]: 18–21} The cross section of this cone is a circle of radius${\displaystyle {\rho }_C}$

$${\displaystyle {\rho }_C(x)=x}$$

and the area of this cross section is

$${\displaystyle \pi {\rho }_C^2=\pi x^2.}$$

So if slices of the cone and the sphereboth are to be weighed together, the combined cross-sectional area is:

$${\displaystyle M(x)=2\pi x.}$$

If the two slices are placed together at distance 1 from the fulcrum, their total weight would be exactly balanced by a circle of area${\displaystyle 2\pi }$ at a distancex from the fulcrum on the other side. This means that the cone and the sphere together, if all their material were moved tox = 1, would balance a cylinder of base radius 1 and length 2 on the other side.

Asx ranges from 0 to 2, the cylinder will have a center of gravity a distance 1 from the fulcrum, so all the weight of the cylinder can be considered to be at position 1. The condition of balance ensures that the volume of the cone plus the volume of the sphere is equal to the volume of the cylinder.

The volume of the cylinder is the cross section area,${\displaystyle 2\pi }$ times the height, which is 2, or${\displaystyle 4\pi }$. Archimedes could also find the volume of the cone using the mechanical method, since, in modern terms, the integral involved is exactly the same as the one for area of the parabola. The volume of the cone is 1/3 its base area times the height. The base of the cone is a circle of radius 2, with area${\displaystyle 4\pi }$, while the height is 2, so the area is${\displaystyle 8\pi /3}$. Subtracting the volume of the cone from the volume of the cylinder gives the volume of the sphere:

$${\displaystyle V_S=4\pi -\frac{8}{3}\pi =\frac{4}{3}\pi .}$$

The dependence of the volume of the sphere on the radius is obvious from scaling, although that also was not trivial to make rigorous back then. The method then gives the familiar formula for thevolume of a sphere. By scaling the dimensions linearly Archimedes easily extended the volume result tospheroids.^[1]: 21-23

Archimedes argument is nearly identical to the argument above, but his cylinder had a bigger radius, so that the cone and the cylinder hung at a greater distance from the fulcrum. He considered this argument to be his greatest achievement, requesting that the accompanying figure of the balanced sphere, cone, and cylinder be engraved upon his tombstone.

To find the surface area of the sphere, Archimedes argued that just as the area of the circle could be thought of as infinitely many infinitesimal right triangles going around the circumference (seeMeasurement of the Circle), the volume of the sphere could be thought of as divided into many cones with height equal to the radius and base on the surface. The cones all have the same height, so their volume is 1/3 the base area times the height.

Archimedes states that the total volume of the sphere is equal to the volume of a cone whose base has the same surface area as the sphere and whose height is the radius.^[1]: 20-21 There are no details given for the argument, but the obvious reason is that the cone can be divided into infinitesimal cones by splitting the base area up, and then each cone makes a contribution according to its base area, just the same as in the sphere.

Let the surface of the sphere be S. The volume of the cone with base areaS and heightr is${\displaystyle Sr/3}$, which must equal the volume of the sphere:${\displaystyle 4\pi r^3/3}$. Therefore, the surface area of the sphere must be${\displaystyle 4\pi r^2}$, or "four times its largest circle". Archimedes proves this rigorously inOn the Sphere and Cylinder.

One of the remarkable things about theMethod is that Archimedes finds two shapes defined by sections of cylinders, whose volume does not involve${\displaystyle \pi }$, despite the shapes having curvilinear boundaries. This is a central point of the investigation—certain curvilinear shapes could be rectified by ruler and compass, so that there are nontrivial rational relations between the volumes defined by the intersections of geometrical solids.

Archimedes emphasizes this in the beginning of the treatise, and invites the reader to try to reproduce the results by some other method. Unlike the other examples, the volume of these shapes is not rigorously computed in any of his other works. From fragments in the palimpsest, it appears that Archimedes did inscribe and circumscribe shapes to prove rigorous bounds for the volume, although the details have not been preserved.

The two shapes he considers are the intersection of two cylinders at right angles (thebicylinder), which is the region of (x, y, z) obeying:and the circular prism, which is the region obeying:Both problems have a slicing which produces an easy integral for the mechanical method. For the circular prism, cut up thex-axis into slices. The region in they-z plane at anyx is the interior of a right triangle of side length${\displaystyle \sqrt{1-x^2}}$ whose area is${\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}(1-x^2)}$, so that the total volume is:$${\displaystyle {\displaystyle {\int }_{-1}^1\frac{1}{2}(1-x^2)dx}}$$which can be easily rectified using the mechanical method. Adding to each triangular section a section of a triangular pyramid with area${\displaystyle x^2/2}$ balances a prism whose cross section is constant.

For the intersection of two cylinders, the slicing is lost in the manuscript, but it can be reconstructed in an obvious way in parallel to the rest of the document: if the x-z plane is the slice direction, the equations for the cylinder give that while, which defines a region which is a square in thex-z plane of side length${\displaystyle 2\sqrt{1-y^2}}$, so that the total volume is:$${\displaystyle {\displaystyle {\int }_{-1}^{1}4(1-y^2)dy.}}$$And this is the same integral as for the previous example.Jan Hogendijk argues that, besides the volume of the bicylinder, Archimedes knew itssurface area, which is also rational.^[5]

A series of propositions of geometry are proved in the palimpsest by similar arguments. One theorem is that the location of a center of mass of ahemisphere is located 5/8 of the way from the pole to the center of the sphere. This problem is notable, because it is evaluating a cubic integral.

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