| Author | Sāyyīd Rāshīd Rīdā |
|---|---|
| Original title | الخلافة أو الإمامة العظمى (Al-Khilafa aw al-Imama al-ʿUzma) |
| Language | Arabic |
| Subject | Islamic State,Islamic Khilafa andIslamism |
Publication date | 1923 |
| Publication place | Egypt |
Al-Khilafa aw al-Imama al-ʿUzma (transl. The Caliphate or the Supreme Imamate;Arabic:الخلافة أو الإمامة العظمى) is anIslamic political treatise published by Syro-EgyptianSalafiIslamist theologianRashid Rida in 1923. The book initially had appeared as a series of articles in Rida'sAl-Manar Islamic magazine throughout the winter of 1922–23 during the tumultuous events of theabolition of Ottoman Sultanate. The book became the first substantial Islamic scholarly treatise of the 20th century which elucidated the theological basis of aKhilafah and advocated the religious obligation of establishing apan-Islamic supra-state. The treatise gave an in-depth explanation of the governance and working of the Caliphate system through precedents fromIslamic history and decried the newly emerging trends that downplayed the orthodoxSunni doctrines on Caliphate; and equated the absence ofIslamic state with the era ofJahiliyya (pre-Islamic ignorance). Rida produced the theoretical framework for aninternational Islamic order that enforcedSharia (Islamic laws), cementing his scholarly status as "the founding theoretician" for Islamist and Jihadist movements of thecontemporary era.[1][2]
In the book, Rida postulated that the Islamic State should ideally be headed by aMujtahid. The Caliph should enforce the laws of the Islamic Imamate/Caliphate based uponQuran,Hadith and the precedents from the fourRashidun Caliphs. QualifiedUlama (Islamic scholars) have the responsibility to aid the government in this task, with the power to constantly evaluate and correct the Caliph and are obliged to act as the moral guardians of the Islamic order. So long as the elected Caliph rules in accordance with Islamic principles and justice, allMuslims are obliged to obey and unite behind him. The establishment of the ideal Caliphate was outlined as a deep-rooted visionary programme. In the absence of the ideal Caliphate, Muslims are obliged to form a "caliphate of necessity", an Islamic state that didn't satisfy the above stipulations.[3]
The treatise would have a profound influence on Islamic scholarly circles and sparked a revolutionary variant ofpan-Islamist activism that opposed all forms of Western social, political and cultural influences. Inspired by the programme of the treatise, Islamists all across the world began totally rejecting all Western political theories and emphasise beliefs in the inherent superiority of Islamic system. Rida's Caliphate doctrine would directly influence ideologues of theMuslim Brotherhood,South AsianJamaat e-Islami andSaudi ArabianSahwa movement.[4][5][6][7]
In November 1922,Kemalist-ledTurkish national Assembly abolished theOttoman Sultanate. Despite being a strong critic ofSultan Mehmed VI for his co-operation with theAllied forces during theiroccupation of Istanbul, Rashid Rida fiercely contested the move and declared that theTurkish War of Independence was an Islamic cause to liberateTurkey fromEuropean colonial powers and restore an Islamic state. Rida denounced the Turkish government for downplaying the position of Caliph to the spiritual realm; similar to the CatholicPapacy. For Rida, Caliphate inIslam represented a political-religious leadership that enforcedsharia (Islamic law), unitedMuslims under the banner ofTawhid and wagedJihad against threats fromdisbelievers. Rida penned the book during the tumultuous events of the Turkish War of Independence in the 1920s with the aim of rebutting Kemalists and enjoining Turks to uphold the Caliphal system. Introducing the treatise as a “gift for the Turkish people", Rida explained the importance of the Caliphate, the obligation to implement Islamic laws and maintenance of Islamic Unity. Asserting that Islam is "the most powerful moral force on Earth”, Rida argued that only a powerful, self-sufficient Islamic civilisation can constitute a successful alternative to the emerging Western-led political order. He urged the Turkish people to wage Jihad against the colonial powers to rejuvenate the Islamic Caliphate and thereby maintain brotherly ties with Arabs; by virtue of allegiance to the Khalifa. Despite this, Rashid Rida held deep reservations of the Turks; since he considered them to be ignorant of Islamic religious sciences and its intricacies for facilitating a viable application of Islamic political system in the modern era.[8]
Rashid Rida condemned the decision of Kemalist-ledTurkish National Assembly to abolish the Sultanate in November 1922 as part of the ideological assault by "Westernisedapostates" against Islam and its symbols.[9] Explaining his motives behind the publication of the work on the wake of theTurkish abolition of Sultanate, Rashid Rida writes:
This matter [i.eKhilafah] was dormant and the sudden events of these days awakened them when theTurks brought down theOttoman House and established on its debris arepublican state in a new form, ... however, they have named one of the members of the family of the previoussultans as a ‘spiritual caliph’ for all Muslims, and they have restricted thiskhilafah to this family… many newspapers have plunged into the matter of the khilafah and its rulings, and there has been much confusion and stampeding in the matter, and the truth has been enshrouded in falsehood; so, we saw it as incumbent upon ourselves to clarify the rulings of ourshari'ah in regard to it in detail that which is dictated by the station in order that truth be known from the false."
— - Muhammad Rashid Rida, in al-Khilafah aw al-Imamah al-'Uzma,[10]
The Turkish government rebutted Rida's treatise with their own book "The Caliphate and the Sovereignty of the People"; supported by activists and intellectuals who restricted the mission of theCaliphate to the first generation alone.Turkish nationalists held the Caliphate to be a titular office with no executive power; since there was no way to prevent thedespotism of theKhalifa. In their view, a Caliphate that fulfills all the legal conditions was the best form of government for mankind; but all the "caliphates" that succeeded the first generation were only monarchs who held a "superficial" Caliphate with no valid political authority. Hence, justifying through historical precedents and invoking the juristic principles to avoid harm; they argued for separating temporal powers from the current tyrannical and false Caliphates. For theKemalists, the Caliphate was a symbol of despotism andbackwardness. Rida refuted the Turkish counter-arguments; by maintaining that real and superficial caliphates had no divergence on political level. Reiterating classical Sunni doctrines; he stipulated that Caliphs who came to power through force must be obeyed to preserve Muslim unity. Rather than anyutilitarian purposes, Caliphate was "the leadership of the Islamic government" tasked with the duty to enforceSharia, uphold justice and wageJihad to defend the Islamic faith and the domains ofDar al-Islam. More importantly, the obligation to establish the Caliphate was laid down clearly by theDivine Law; therefore making itforbidden "to abolish it or replace it". He also mocked Turkish nationalist reasoning over precedents toIslamic history; since history was rife with examples of heresies, oppression andpolytheism.[11]
Referring back to the works of classical theologians such asIbn Taymiyya andMawardi, Rida transmitted'Ijma (scholarly consensus) on the necessity of the Caliphate, writing:
The pious ancestors (salaf) of theummah were in consensus, and theSunnis, as well as the masses of the other sects that the position of the imam – that is, the appointing him as trustee over theummah, is obligatory for Muslims according to theshari'ah...the position of the caliph is afard kifayah (an obligation contingent upon sufficiency) and that those who are obliged to fill it are theahl al-hal wa al-'aqd in theummah"
— Sayyid Rashid Rida, in "al-Khilafah aw al-Imamah al-'Uzma",[12]
The first section of the book was a detailed examination on the need and urgency of the Caliphate. Bringing citations from hadith literature and works of SunniFuqaha likeAl-Mawardi and to back up his premise, Rida asserted that the absence of Caliphate and Islamic rule was equivalent to the state ofJahiliyya (pre-Islamic pagan ignorance). Reiterating the standard prerequisites in classical Sunni doctrine on the election of the caliph, Rida stressed the Caliph caliph should be amujtahid and from theQuraysh tribe. He advocated the principle of Arab virtue and pre-eminence, arguing that Islam attained its glory under Arab leadership and hence,Imamate (leadership) should once again return to theArabs. Rida further identified asHejaz andArabian Peninsula as sacred lands where practice of all religions other than Islam have to be banished. The degeneration of Caliphate system after the Four Rightly Guided Caliphs was blamed by Rida on the actions of first Umayyad CaliphMu'awiya I. These included abandonment of theshura system of electing acaliph in favour of dynastic succession; and introduction of theasabiyya ofUmayyads.[2]
While Rida stressed the importance of electing a Caliph who met all of theshar’i stipulations, he also wrote that the absence of these ideal conditions did not imply the discontinuity of the Caliphate in no ambiguous terms:
“the‘ulama agreed that it is not permissible to swear thebay’ah for thekhilafah to any except one who combines (in his person) what they mentioned of requisite qualifications, especially justice, and competence, and his beingQuraysh; but, if some of the requisite conditions are not present, then the matter enters into the rule of necessities, and the necessities dictate according to their measure that it is obligatory in that instance to swear thebay’ah to him who gathers together most of the requisite qualifications ...”
— Sayyid Rashid Rida, "al-Khilafah aw al-Imamah al-'Uzma"
Rida classified caliphates into 3 categories.
Rida designated the latter two categories of Caliphates as “Khilafat al-Idtirar (Compulsory Caliphate)”. Differentiating between them, Rida writes:
"the difference between thiskhilafah – the familiarkhilafah of ‘domination’ and what came before it when both of them being permissible due to necessity is that the first issues from theahl al-hal wa al-aqd by their choice of one who represents those who have lost some of the requisite conditions… whereas the second is an assailant of thekhilafah by force oftribalism, not by the choice of theahl al-hal wa al-‘aqd …”
— Muhammad Rashid Rida,al-Khilafah aw al-Imamah al-'Uzma
Rashid Rida called for the creation of the "Ideal Caliphate" modelled after the Rashidun Caliphates; envisioning it as an Islamic state established through on consultation with Islamic representatives. The contemporary Ottoman Sultanate was dercried[clarification needed] as a form of feudal model. At the same, Rida recognised the hardships for electing an Ideal Caliph and envisioned its rejuvenation as a long-term strategy. In the immediate term, Rida argued, Muslims should strive to establish an "Islamic state" which would be the "Imamate of Necessity/Actual Caliphate". "Actual Caliphate/Imamate" is a necessary stage that is required to defend the unity of Muslims and preventanarchy. Nevertheless, even this Islamic state would not be tyrannical. Rather, the Islamic-state of necessity would also uphold social justice and root out exploitation, based on Islamic injunctions. The rulers are to be assisted in this duty by the righteousulema, who act as the moral guardians of civilization and check the excesses of the ruler according to theShari'ah. Rashid Rida described this intermediary socio-political system under a variety of terms, such as “Islamic government”, “Islamic Caliphate”, “Government of Caliphate”, etc.[16][5]
In the second section of the book, Rashid Rida explained about the Caliphal apparatus and the procedure for conducting an advanced and efficient governance. Rida stressed three significant religious and temporal themes which became the hallmark of Arabsalafiyya movement: establishment of Islamic government based onshura (consultation), the urgency of a rejuvanted caliphate under Arab leadership, and safeguarding Islamic state-hood. The process ofshura (consultation) to choose thecaliph and assist him in governance was to be done by prominent Muslim representative known as theAhl al-hall wal 'Aqd. Its members not only consisted of reveredIslamic scholars, clerics, theologians and jurisconsultants, but also successful Muslim individuals in fields as diverse as literature, academia, engineering, business, industries, military, science and technology, etc.[17]
Although theAhl al-Hal wal Aqd were qualified to evaluate the decisions of the rulers; major decisions concerning state policies and ideological stances; they are bound to defer to the counsel of senior scholars known as theMujtahids so that they are compatible withsharia. The principle ofshura constituted a core feature of the Islamic state since it constituted a balancing mechanism between the authorities and their subjects and ensured the justice and upheld the sanctity of Muslims. To guard against corruptions from undermining theshura system; Rida argued for the dominant role of upright, qualifiedulema in theAhl al-hal wal Aqd, who act as "the natural and genuine representatives of Muslims."[18]
The process of legislation and passing rules and regulations were to be based onQur'an andSunnah. In the absence of clear textual sources from the Scriptures (i.e. Qur'an and authentic hadith), the ulema should exerciseIjtihad based on theprinciples of Islamic jurisprudence to determine legislative rulings. Thus, the power of a ruler was restricted within the following boundaries set bySharia:
"He [the caliph] is limited by the prescriptions of theQur'an and thesunna, by the general example of the Rashidun caliphs, and by consultation."[17]
Rida's proposed caliphate advocated the core themes of the Arabsalafiyya movement and would implement Salafist doctrines in its territories. The electedKhalifa would be the supreme head; whose role was to govern by supervising the application of Islamic laws (Sharia). This was to happen through co-operation between theMujtahidulema (legal experts) and the ‘‘true caliph"; who engage inIjtihad by evaluating the Scriptures and govern throughshura (consultation). This procedure would strengthen the Caliphate, making it immune to corrupting foreign influences. Thus theKhilafa shall become a revolutionary vehicle forIslamic renaissance, revitalise theIslamic civilization, restore the political, economic and cultural sovereignty of theIslamic World, and rid Muslims off the polytheistic influences ofSufism. Rida identified two major internal enemies to his revolutionary project of Islamic Renaissance: "hizb al-mutafarnijin (the Europeanized party)", themodernists who borrowed heavily from Western ideological discourse, and "hizb hashawiyyat al-fuqaha' al-jdmidin (the party of the "reactionary jurists)", represented by the old-school Sufi clergy who clung onto the outdated works of the fourmad'habs and refused to research the Scriptures or participate inIjtihad. Islamic Renaissance was to be spearheaded by "hizb al-islah al-islami al-mu'tadil (moderate party ofIslamic reform)", an avant-guard class of Salafist scholars who integrated their Islamic knowledge, scientific temperament and technical skills to address the rising challenges of the tumultuousinter War Islamic World.[19][20]
TheSalafiyya movement regarded theWest as a primary nemesis; perceiving it's assault on Islam as political, cultural and ideological. While advocating Islamic reforms like cleansing folkSufism andsuperstitions, the movement also emphasised the socio-political, cultural and ideological confrontation with the West; attacking the emerging heretical Western ideas and ridding "the seeds of Western decadence".[4][5]
Envisioning the Islamic Caliphate as a critical institution needed for preserving Islamic unity and championingIslamic Renaissance, Rida writes:
'TheIslamic world is in a state of anguish over the matter of its religion and the rulings of itsshari’ah; subject to the whims of its rulers of different religions and confessions, the opinions of its‘ulama, the guides of differentmadhahib and schools of thought, and the control of its enemies in religion and the world; and it does not have a source of agreed-upon general guidance to which to resort in that of which it is ignorant. Whenever there appears within it areformer who castigates the people of whim, the corruptors rush to confront him and cast aspersions upon his religion and his knowledge; there is no cure for these corrupting factors and deviations except the revival of the position of theimamah, and the establishing the rightfulimam…'
— Muhammad Rashid Rida, in al-Khilafah aw al-Imamah al-'Uzma,[21]
"Al-Khilafa Aw al-Imama al-‘Uzma" became one of the most significant scholarly references for the ensuant ideologues ofIslamism andJihadism in their quest for rejuvenating theKhilafah system. The book ushered in a “conceptual revolution” which rejected all religious arguments for accepting the nascentnation-state paradigm and advocated the continuity of the traditionalIslamic political order. Rida emphasised the classical methodology of electing theImam, pledgingbay’ah to theKhalifa and composition of theAhl al-Hall wal-‘Aqd. By linking the ideas from the political treatises ofIbn Taymiyya,Mawardi, and other medievaljurisconsultants to the contemporary era; Rashid Rida revived the once-dormant subject of “Islamic legal politics” into the heart of religious discourse. The work championed the continuity of classicalSunni political doctrines over contemporarymodernist andnationalist arguments for modern political ideas. Rida was one of the last major scholars to publish an originalist scholarly thesis onKhilafah; and later ideologues would use his work as a reference point; giving birth to a variety of Islamist movements.[22]
Rida'smodernist detractors have accused him of shutting down the historical evolution of Islamic political discourse and taking it back to the narrow confines of creedal rigidity and close-mindedness. Another critique was that despite his calls forIjtihad, Rida didn't expand theIslamic political theory pragmatically for the complexities of the modern age. Critics argue that Rida's treatise is mostly a blind reformulation of the political ideas espoused by medieval jurisconsultants likeIbn Taymiyya,Ibn Qayyim,al-Mawardi,al-Ghazali, etc.[22]
Other authors have criticised Rida as misappropriating the works of classical jurists without taking into account their historical context.Moroccanphilosopher Abdelilah Belkeziz writes:
“Rashid Rida does not contribute anything new as regards a definition in specifying the necessity of theImamah ... the difference between him and between his predecessors among the Fuqaha of the Khilafah, such as al-Mawardi, al-Ghazali, Ibn Taymiyyah or Ibn al-Qayyim al-Jawzi is that these discussed an extant imamah: an imamah of reality... Rashid Rida however, directed his discussion towards an imamah and a khilafah and towards preaching about a position that had no existence in reality – given that he did not consider it permissible to account theOttoman khilafah as being among that which deserved the term or was representative of it! Thus, the discourse of al-Mawardi – and whoever took the same position among thefuqaha – was ‘positivist’ and based on an extant reality, whereas the discourse of Rashid Rida remained somehow normative and propagandist… his conceptual relation to that [of] khilafah was incompatible and not identifiable with the relation of the fuqaha of Islamic legal politics of theIslamic Middle Ages to thekhilafah of that period.”[22]
