Terra Australis (Latin for'Southern Land') was a hypotheticalcontinent first posited inantiquity and which appeared on maps between the 15th and 18th centuries. Its existence was not based on any survey or direct observation, but rather on the idea that continental land in theNorthern Hemisphere should be balanced by land in theSouthern Hemisphere.[1] This theory of balancing land has been documented as early as the 5th century on maps byMacrobius, who used the termAustralis on his maps.
The French writerGuillaume Postel proposed the nameChasdia, afterNoah's grandsonCush, for the hypothetical continent on the basis of it having dark-skinned inhabitants (Cush's traditional descendants).[6]
During the 18th century, today'sAustralia was not conflated withTerra Australis, as it sometimes was in the 20th century.Captain Cook and his contemporaries knew that the sixth continent (today's Australia), which they calledNew Holland, was entirely separate from the imagined (but still undiscovered) seventh continent (today'sAntarctica).
In the 19th century, the colonial authorities inSydney re-allocated the nameAustralia to New Holland and its centuries-old Dutch name eventually fell into disuse. Meanwhile, having lost its name ofAustralia, the south polar continent was nameless for decades untilAntarctica was coined in the 1890s.[7]
In the early 19th century,British explorerMatthew Flinders popularized thenaming of Australia afterTerra Australis, giving his rationale that there was "no probability" of finding any significant land mass anywhere more south than Australia.[8]: iii, Introduction The continent that would come to be namedAntarctica would be explored decades after Flinders' 1814 book on Australia, which he had titledA Voyage to Terra Australis, and after his naming switch had gained popularity.
A printed map from the 15th century depictingPtolemy's description of theEcumene, by Johannes Schnitzer (1482)
In the fourth century B.C.Aristotle hypothesized that the continents of the northern hemisphere must be balanced out by an unknown landmass in the southern hemisphere.[9]
Ptolemy (2nd century AD) believed that theIndian Ocean was enclosed on the south by land, and that the lands of theNorthern Hemisphere should be balanced by land in thesouth.[1]Marcus Tullius Cicero used the termcingulus australis ("southern zone") in referring to the Antipodes inSomnium Scipionis ("Dream of Scipio").[10] The land (terra in Latin) in this zone was theTerra Australis.[11]
Fragment of thePiri Reis map byPiri Reis in 1513, possibly showingTerra AustralisWestern hemisphere of theJohannes Schönerglobe from 1520Oronce Fine 1531 double cordiform (heart-shaped) map of the worldGerard de Jode,Universi Orbis seu Terreni Globi, 1578. This is a copy on one sheet of Abraham Ortelius' eight-sheetTypus Orbis Terrarum, 1564. TheTerra Australis is shown extending northward as far as New Guinea.
Legends ofTerra Australis Incognita—an "unknown land of the South"—date back to Roman times and before, and were commonplace in medieval geography, although not based on any documented knowledge of the continent. Ptolemy's maps, which became well known in Europe during theRenaissance, did not actually depict such a continent, but they did show an Africa which had no southern oceanic boundary (and which therefore might extend all the way to the South Pole), and also raised the possibility that theIndian Ocean was entirely enclosed by land. Christian thinkers did not discount the idea that there might be land beyond the southern seas, but the issue ofwhether it could be inhabited was controversial.
The first depiction ofTerra Australis on a globe was probably onJohannes Schöner's lost 1523 globe on whichOronce Fine is thought to have based his 1531 double cordiform (heart-shaped) map of the world.[12][13] On this landmass he wrote "recently discovered but not yet completely explored".[14] The body of water beyond the tip of South America is called the "Mare Magellanicum", one of the first uses of navigator Ferdinand Magellan's name in such a context.[15]
Schöner called the continentBrasiliae Australis in his 1533 tract,Opusculum geographicum. In it, he explained:
Brasilia Australis is an immense region toward Antarcticum, newly discovered but not yet fully surveyed, which extends as far as Melacha and somewhat beyond. The inhabitants of this region lead good, honest lives and are not Anthropophagi [cannibals] like other barbarian nations; they have no letters, nor do they have kings, but they venerate their elders and offer them obedience; they give the name Thomas to their children [afterSt Thomas the Apostle]; close to this region lies the great island of Zanzibar at 102.00 degrees and 27.30 degrees South.[16]
A map in theLiber Floridus (1090 - 1120) oriented with east on top and north to the left, depicting the known world (Asia, Europe, and Africa) to the left, andTerra Australis to the right
During medieval timesTerra Australis was known by a different name, that being theAntipodes. First widely introduced to medieval western Europe byIsidore of Seville in his famous book theEtymologiae, the idea gained popularity across Europe, and most scholars did not question its existence, instead debating if it was habitable for other humans. It would later be included on some zonalMappa mundi and intrigue medieval scholars for centuries.[17][18][19][20]
Terre Australle by Jacques de Vaux, 1583Discussion of various names used for Australia over time
Explorers of theAge of Discovery, from the late 15th century on, proved that Africa was almost entirely surrounded by sea, and that the Indian Ocean was accessible from both west and east. These discoveries reduced the area where the continent could be found; however, many cartographers held to Aristotle's opinion. Scientists such asGerardus Mercator (1569)[21] andAlexander Dalrymple as late as 1767[1] argued for its existence, with such arguments as that there should be a largelandmass in thesouth as acounterweight to the known landmasses in the Northern Hemisphere. As new lands were discovered, they were often assumed to be parts of the hypothetical continent.[22]
The German cosmographer and mathematicianJohannes Schöner (1477–1547) constructed a terrestrial globe in 1515, based on the world map and globe made byMartin Waldseemüller and his colleagues at St. Dié in Lorraine in 1507. Where Schöner departs most conspicuously from Waldseemüller is in his globe's depiction of an Antarctic continent, called by him Brasilie Regio. His continent is based, however tenuously, on the report of an actual voyage: that of the Portuguese merchants Nuno Manuel andCristóvão de Haro to theRiver Plate, and related in theNewe Zeytung auss Presillg Landt ("New Tidings from the Land of Brazil") published in Augsburg in 1514.[23] TheZeytung described the Portuguese voyagers passing through a strait between the southernmost point of America, or Brazil, and a land to the south west, referred to asvndtere Presill (orBrasilia inferior).
This supposed "strait" was in fact the Rio de la Plata (or theSan Matias Gulf).[24] By "vndtere Presill", the Zeytung meant that part of Brazil in the lower latitudes, but Schöner mistook it to mean the land on the southern side of the "strait", in higher latitudes, and so gave to it the opposite meaning. On this slender foundation he constructed his circum-Antarctic continent to which, for the reasons that he does not explain, he gave an annular, or ring shape. In an accompanying explanatory treatise,Luculentissima quaedam terrae totius descriptio ("A Most Lucid Description of All Lands"), he explained:
The Portuguese, thus, sailed around this region, the Brasilie Regio, and discovered the passage very similar to that of our Europe (where we reside) and situated laterally between east and west. From one side the land on the other is visible; and the cape of this region about 60 miles [97 km] away, much as if one were sailing eastward through the Straits of Gibraltar or Seville and Barbary or Morocco in Africa, as our Globe shows toward the Antarctic Pole. Further, the distance is only moderate from this Region of Brazil to Malacca, where St. Thomas was crowned with martyrdom.[25]
On this scrap of information, united with the concept of the Antipodes inherited from Graeco-Roman antiquity, Schöner constructed his representation of the southern continent. His strait served as inspiration forFerdinand Magellan's expedition to reach the Moluccas by a westward route.[26]
He took Magellan's discovery of Tierra del Fuego in 1520 as further confirmation of its existence, and on his globes of 1523 and 1533 he described it asterra australis recenter inventa sed nondum plene cognita ("Terra Australis, recently discovered but not yet fully known"). It was taken up by his followers, the French cosmographerOronce Fine in his world map of 1531, and the Flemish cartographersGerardus Mercator in 1538 andAbraham Ortelius in 1570. Schöner's concepts influenced theDieppeschool of mapmakers, notably in their representation ofJave la Grande.[27]
Guillaume Le Testu's 1556Cosmographie Universel, 4me projection, where the northward extending promontory of theTerre australle is calledGrande Jaue
Terra Australis was depicted on the mid-16th-centuryDieppe maps, where its coastline appeared just south of the islands of the East Indies; it was often elaborately charted, with a wealth of fictitious detail. There was much interest inTerra Australis amongNorman andBreton merchants at that time. In 1566 and 1570, Francisque andAndré d'Albaigne presentedGaspard de Coligny, Admiral of France, with projects for establishing relations with the Austral lands. Although the Admiral gave favourable consideration to these initiatives, they came to nought when Coligny waskilled in 1572.[32]
HypotheticalTerra Australis in a map byCornelius Wytfliet from 1597Terra Australis occupies a large part of the southern hemisphere in this world map of 1587 byRumold Mercator, the son ofGerardus Mercator.
Gerardus Mercator believed in the existence of a large Southern continent on the basis of cosmographic reasoning, set out in the abstract of hisAtlas or Cosmographic Studies in Five Books, as related by his biographer, Walter Ghim, who said that even though Mercator was not ignorant that the Austral continent still lay hidden and unknown, he believed it could be "demonstrated and proved by solid reasons and arguments to yield in its geometric proportions, size and weight, and importance to neither of the other two, nor possibly to be lesser or smaller, otherwise the constitution of the world could not hold together at its centre".[33]
The Flemish geographer and cartographer,Cornelius Wytfliet, wrote concerning theTerra Australis in his 1597 book,Descriptionis Ptolemaicae Augmentum:
The terra Australis is therefore the southernmost of all other lands, directly beneath the antarctic circle; extending beyond the tropic of Capricorn to the West, it ends almost at the equator itself, and separated by a narrow strait lies on the East opposite to New Guinea, only known so far by a few shores because after one voyage and another that route has been given up and unless sailors are forced and driven by stress of winds it is seldom visited. The terra Australis begins at two or three degrees below the equator and it is said by some to be of such magnitude that if at any time it is fully discovered they think it will be the fifth part of the world.Adjoining Guinea on the right are the numerous and vast Solomon Islands which lately became famous by the voyage of Alvarus Mendanius.[34]
Juan Fernandez, sailing from Chile in 1576, claimed he had discovered the Southern Continent.[35] ThePolus Antarcticus map of 1641 byHenricus Hondius, bears the inscription:"Insulas esse a Nova Guinea usque ad Fretum Magellanicum affirmat Hernandus Galego, qui ad eas explorandas missus fuit a Rege Hispaniae Anno 1576 (Hernando Gallego, who in the year 1576 was sent by the King of Spain to explore them, affirms that there are islands from New Guinea up to the Strait of Magellan)".[a]
Luís Vaz de Torres, aSpanish navigator who commanded theSan Pedro y San Pablo, theSan Pedrico and the tender or yacht,Los Tres Reyes Magos during the 1605–1606 expedition led byPedro Fernandes de Queiros in quest of the Southern Continent, proved the existence of a passage south of New Guinea, now known asTorres Strait. Commenting on this in 1622, the Dutch cartographer and publisher of Queiros' eighth memorial,Hessel Gerritsz, noted on hisMap of the Pacific Ocean: "Those who sailed with the yacht of Pedro Fernando de Quiros in the neighbourhood of New Guinea to 10 degrees westward through many islands and shoals and over 23 and 24 fathoms [42 and 44 m] for as many as 40 days, estimated that Nova Guinea does not extend beyond 10 degrees to the south; if this be so, then the land from 9 to 14 degrees would be a separate land".[36]
Pedro Fernandes de Queirós, another Portuguese navigator sailing for the Spanish Crown, saw a large island south of New Guinea in 1606, which he named La Austrialia del Espiritu Santo.[37] He represented this to the King ofSpain as the Terra Australis incognita. In his 10th Memorial (1610), Queirós said: "New Guinea is the top end of the Austral Land of which I treat [discuss], and that people, and customs, with all the rest referred to, resemble them".[38]
Dutch father and son Isaac andJacob Le Maire established the Australische Compagnie (Australian Company) in 1615 to trade withTerra Australis, which they called "Australia".[39]
TheDutch expedition to Valdivia of 1643 intended to round Cape Horn sailing through Le Maire Strait but strong winds made it instead drift south and east.[40] The small fleet led byHendrik Brouwer managed to enter the Pacific ocean sailing south of the island disproving earlier beliefs that it was part ofTerra Australis.[40][41][42]
The cartographic depictions of the southern continent in the 16th and early 17th centuries, as might be expected for a concept based on such abundant conjecture and minimal data, varied wildly from map to map; in general, the continent shrank as potential locations were reinterpreted. At its largest, the continent includedTierra del Fuego, separated from South America by a small strait;New Guinea; and what would come to be calledAustralia. In Ortelius's atlasTheatrum Orbis Terrarum, published in 1570,Terra Australis extends north of the Tropic of Capricorn in the Pacific Ocean.
As long as it appeared on maps at all, the continent minimally included the unexplored lands around theSouth Pole, but generally much larger than the realAntarctica, spreading far north – especially in thePacific Ocean.New Zealand, first seen by theDutch explorerAbel Tasman in 1642, was regarded by some as a part of the continent.
A map with aTerra Australis stretching from New Guinea to the South Pole and beyond was included in the 1676 application byVittorio Riccio, an Italian missionary inManila, to be appointedPrefect Apostolic ofTerra Australis in order to initiate missionary activity there.[43] His appointment was approved in 1681 but he died in 1685.
Alexander Dalrymple, the Examiner of Sea Journals for the BritishEast India Company,[44] whilst translating some Spanish documentscaptured in the Philippines in 1762, found de Torres's testimony. This discovery led Dalrymple to publish theHistorical Collection of the Several Voyages and Discoveries in the South Pacific Ocean in 1770–1771. Dalrymple presented a beguiling tableau of theTerra Australis, or Southern Continent:
The number of inhabitants in the Southern Continent is probably more than 50 millions, considering the extent, from the eastern part discovered by Juan Fernandez, to the western coast seen by Tasman, is about 100 deg. of longitude, which in the latitude of 40 deg. amounts to 4596 geographic, or 5323 stature miles [8567 km]. This is a greater extent than the whole civilized part of Asia, from Turkey to the eastern extremity of China. There is at present no trade from Europe thither, though the scraps from this table would be sufficient to maintain the power, dominion, and sovereignty of Britain, by employing all its manufacturers and ships. Whoever considers the Peruvian empire, where arts and industry flourished under one of the wisest systems of government, which was founded by a stranger, must have very sanguine expectations of the southern continent, from whence it is more than probable Mango Capac, the first Inca, was derived, and must be convinced that the country, from whence Mango Capac introduced the comforts of civilized life, cannot fail of amply rewarding the fortunate people who shall bestow letters instead of quippos (quipus), and iron in place of more awkward substitutes.[45]
Dalrymple's claim of the existence of an unknown continent aroused widespread interest and prompted the British government in 1769 to orderJames Cook inHM BarkEndeavour to seek out the Southern Continent to the South and West ofTahiti, discovered in June 1767 bySamuel Wallis inHMS Dolphin and named by him King George Island.[46] The London press reported in June 1768 that two ships would be sent to the newly discovered island and from there to "attempt the Discovery of the Southern Continent".[47] A subsequent press report stated: "We are informed, that the Island which Captain Wallis has discovered in the South-Sea, and named George's Land, is about fifteen hundred Leagues to the Westward and to Leeward of the Coast of Peru, and about five-and-thirty Leagues in circumference; that its principal and almost sole national Advantage is, its Situation for exploring the Terra Incognita of the Southern Hemisphere. The Endeavour, a North-Country Cat, is purchased by the Government, and commanded by a Lieutenant of the Navy; she is fitting out at Deptford for the South-Sea, thought to be intended for the newly-discovered Island".[48] The aims of the expedition were revealed in days following: "To-morrow morning Mr. Banks, Dr. Solano [sic], with Mr. Green, the Astronomer, will set out for Deal, to embark on board the Endeavour, Capt. Cook, for the South Seas, under the direction of the Royal Society, to observe the Transit of Venus next summer, and to make discoveries to the South and West of Cape Horn".[49] The LondonGazetteer was more explicit when it reported on 18 August 1768: "The gentlemen, who are to sail in a few days for George's Land, the new discovered island in the Pacific ocean, with an intention to observe the Transit of Venus, are likewise, we are credibly informed, to attempt some new discoveries in that vast unknown tract, above the latitude 40".[50] The results of thisfirst voyage of James Cook in respect of the quest for the Southern Continent were summed up by Cook himself. He wrote in hisJournal on 31 March 1770 that theEndeavour's voyage "must be allowed to have set aside the most, if not all, the Arguments and proofs that have been advanced by different Authors to prove that there must be a Southern Continent; I mean to the Northward of 40 degrees South, for what may lie to the Southward of that Latitude I know not".[51]
The available territory for a southern continent had diminished greatly in this 1657 map by the Dutch cartographerJan Janssonius.Terra Australis Incognita ("unknown southern land") is printed across a region including the south pole without any definite shorelines.
Over the centuries the idea ofTerra Australis gradually lost its hold. In 1616,Jacob Le Maire andWillem Schouten's rounding ofCape Horn proved thatTierra del Fuego was a relatively small island, while in 1642Abel Tasman's first Pacific voyage proved that Australia was not part of the mythical southern continent. Much later,James Cook circumnavigated and charted New Zealand in 1770, showing that even it could not be part of a large continent. On hissecond voyage hecircumnavigated the globe at a very high southernlatitude, at some places even crossing theAntarctic Circle, showing that any possible southern continent must lie well within the cold polar areas.[52] There could be no extension into regions with atemperate climate, as had been thought before. In 1814,Matthew Flinders published the bookA Voyage to Terra Australis. Flinders had concluded that theTerra Australis as hypothesized byAristotle andPtolemy did not exist, so he wanted the name applied to what he saw as the next best thing: "Australia" (laterthe country), replacing the former name for the continent, New Holland. He wrote:
There is no probability, that any other detached body of land, of nearly equal extent, will ever be found in a more southern latitude; the name Terra Australis will, therefore, remain descriptive of the geographical importance of this country, and of its situation on the globe: it has antiquity to recommend it; and, having no reference to either of the two claiming nations,[b] appears to be less objectionable than any other which could have been selected.
...with the accompanying note at the bottom of the page:[8]: iii, Introduction
Had I permitted myself any innovation upon the original term, it would have been to convert it into AUSTRALIA; as being more agreeable to the ear, and an assimilation to the names of the other great portions of the earth.
With the discovery of Antarctica his conclusion would soon be revealed as a mistake, but by that time the name had stuck.[53]
A land feature known as the "Province of Beach" or "Boeach" – from the LatinProvincia boëach – appears to have resulted from mistranscriptions of a name in Marco Polo'sIl Milione (Book III). Polo described his journey by sea from China to India by way ofChampa (provincia ciamba; modern southern Vietnam),Java Major,Locach (modernLop Buri),[54] andSumatra (Java Minor). InCantonese, Lavo (an early name of Lop Buri) was pronounced "Lo-huk" 羅斛 andLocach was Marco Polo's transcription of this name.[55] According to Polo, Locach was a kingdom where gold was "so plentiful that no one who did not see it could believe it". Polo's narrative describes the route southward from Champa towardSumatra, but by a slip of the pen the name "Java" (which Polo did not himself visit) was substituted for "Champa" as the point of departure,[56] thereby mis-locating Sumatra and Locach south of Java (rather than Champa). Consequently, some geographers believed that Sumatra and Locach were near, or extensions of,Terra Australis.[57]
In theGerman cursive script,Locach andBoeach look similar. A feature known as the "Province of Beach" or "Boeach" – from the LatinProvincia boëach – appears on European maps as early as the 15th century. On a map of the world published in Florence in 1489 byHenricus Martellus, the Latin nameprovincia boëach is given to a southern neighbour of Champa. In a 1532 edition ofMarco Polo'sTravels, Locach was changed toBoëach, later shortened toBeach.[58]
By the mid-16th century, according toHenry Yule, the editor of a modern (1921) edition of Polo'sTravels, some geographers and cartographers followed the error in older editions of Polo that "placed ... the land of "Boeach" (or Locac)" south-east of Java and "introduced in their maps a continent in that situation".[59]Gerard Mercator did just that on his 1541 globe, placingBeach provincia aurifera ("Beach the gold-bearing province") in the northernmost part of theTerra Australis in accordance with the faulty text of Marco Polo'sTravels. The landmass of Beach remained in this location on Mercator's world map of 1569, with the amplified description, quoting Marco Polo,Beach provincia aurifera quam pauci ex alienis regionibus adeunt propter gentis inhumanitatem ("Beach the gold-bearing province, whither go few from other countries because of the inhumanity of its people") withLucach regnum shown somewhat to its south west.[60] Following Mercator,Abraham Ortelius also showedBEACH andLVCACH in these locations on his world map of 1571.
The 1596 map byJan Huygen van Linschoten showedBEACH andLOCACH, projecting from the map's southern edge as the northernmost parts of theTerra Australis long hypothesized by Europeans. An encounter by the Dutch vesselEendracht, commanded byDirk Hartog, withShark Bay, Western Australia in 1616, appeared to confirm that land existed where the maps showedBeach; Hartog named the wider landmassEendrachtsland, after his ship. In August 1642, the Council of theDutch East India Company – evidently still relying on Linschoten's map – despatchedAbel Tasman andFrans Jacobszoon Visscher on a voyage of exploration, of which one of the objects was to obtain knowledge of "all the totally unknown provinces of Beach".[61]
The unexplored southern continent was a frequent subject of fantastic fiction in the 17th and 18th centuries in the imaginary voyages genre. Among the works which dealt with imaginary visits to the continent (which at the time was still believed to be real) were:
Miscellanea Aurea: The Fortunate Shipwreck, or a description of New Athens in Terra Australis incognita (1720) by the EnglishdramatistThomas Killigrew;
Relation d'un voyage du Pole Arctique, au Pole Antarctique par le centre du monde (1721), anonymous;
Relation du royaume des Féliciens (1727) by the Marquis de Lassay;
Viaggi di Enrico Wanton alle Terre incognite Australi (1749) by Zaccaria Seriman;
Voyage de Robertson, aux Terres Australes, traduit sur le manuscrit anglois (1767), anonymous;
^abcJohn Noble Wilford: The Mapmakers, the Story of the Great Pioneers in Cartography from Antiquity to Space Age, p. 139, Vintage Books, Random House 1982,ISBN0-394-75303-8
^National library of Australia, ed. (2013).Mapping our world: terra incognita to Australia. Canberra: National Library of Australia.ISBN978-0-642-27809-8.
^Cameron-Ash, M. (2018).Lying for the Admiralty: Captain Cook's Endeavour Voyage. Sydney: Rosenberg. pp. 19–20.ISBN978-0-648-04396-6.
^Duo [cingulis] sunt habitabiles, quorum australis ille, in quo qui insistunt adversa vobis urgent vestigia, nihil ad vestrum genus ("Two of them [the five belts or zones that gird and surround the earth] are habitable, of which the southern, whose inhabitants are your antipodes, bears no relation to your people"). Alfred Hiatt, "Terra Australis and the Idea of the Antipodes", Anne M. Scott (ed),European Perceptions of Terra Australis, Ashgate Publishing, 2012, pp. 18–10.
^Eisler, William (1995).The Furthest Shore: Images of Terra Australis from the Middle Ages to Captain Cook. Cambridge University Press. p. 10.ISBN0-521-39268-3.
^Albert-Marie-Ferdinand Anthiaume, "Un pilote et cartographe havrais au XVIe siècle: Guillaume Le Testu",Bulletin de Géographie Historique et Descriptive, Paris, Nos 1–2, 1911, pp. 135–202, n.b. p. 176.
^Franz von Wieser,Magalhães-Strasse und Austral-Continent. Auf den Globen Johannes Schöner. Beitrage zur Geschichte der Erdkunde im xvi. Jahrhundert, Innsbruck, 1881 (reprinted Amsterdam, Meridian, 1967)
^Stefan Zweig, Magellan,Pioneer of the Pacific, translated by Eden and Cedar Paul, London, Cassell, 1938, p.78; Rolando A. Laguarda,El predescubrimiento del Rio de la Plata por la expedicion portuguesa de 1511-1512, Lisboa, Junta de Investigacoes do Ultramar Lisboa, 1973, p.141
^Chet van Duzer,Johann Schöner's Globe of 1515: Transcription and Study, Philadelphia, American Philosophical Society,Transactions, Volume 100, Part 5, 2010.
^Franz von Wieser,Magalhães-Strasse und Austral-Continent. Auf den Globen Johannes Schöner. Beitrage zur Geschichte der Erdkunde im xvi. Jahrhundert, Innsbruck, 1881 (reprinted Amsterdam, Meridian, 1967), p. 65.
^Armand Rainaud,Le Continent Austral: Hypotheses et Découvertes, Paris, Colin, 1893 (repr. Amsterdam, Meridian Pub. Co., 1965), p. 291.
^Pinochet de la Barra, Óscar (November 1944).La Antártica Chilena. Editorial Andrés Bello.
^"1544" (in Spanish). Biografía de Chile. Archived fromthe original on 19 August 2022. Retrieved25 August 2022.
^E.T. Hamy, "Francisque et André d'Albaigne: cosmographes lucquois au service de la France"; "Nouveau documents sur les frères d'Albaigne et sur le projet de voyage et de découvertes présenté à la cour de France"; and "Documents relatifs à un projet d'expéditions lointaines présentés à la cour de France en 1570", inBulletin de Géographie Historique et Descriptive, Paris, 1894, pp. 405–433; 1899, pp. 101–110; and 1903, pp. 266–273.
^Walter Ghim, "Vita…Gerardi Mercatoris Rupelmundani",Gerardi Mercatoris Atlas sive Cosmographice Meditationes de Fabrica Mundi et Fabricate Figura, Amsterdami, 1606, p. 12.
^Australis igitur terra omnium aliarum terrarum australissima, directe subiecta antarctico circulo, Tropicum Capricorni vltra ad Occidentem excurrens, in ipfo penè aequatore finitur, tenuique difcreta freto Nouam Guineam Orienti obijcit, paucis tãtum hactenus littoribus cognitam, quòd post vnam atque alteram nauigationem, curfus ille intermissus fit, & nisi coactis impulsifquc nautis ventorum turbine, rarius eò adnauigetur. Australis terra initium sumit duobus aut tribes gradibus fub aequatore, tantaeque a quibufdam magnitudinis esse perhibetur, vt fi quando integrè deteda erit, quintam illam mundi partem fore arbitrentur. Guinea a dextris adhrent Salomoniae insulae multae & quae nauigatione Aluari Mendanij nuper inclaruêre, &c. Cornelius Wytfliet,Descriptionis Ptolemaicae Augmentum, Louvain, 1597, p. 20.
^José Toribio Medina,El Piloto Juan Fernandez, Santiago de Chile, 1918, reprinted by Gabriela Mistral, 1974, pp. 136, 246.
^Hessel Gerritsz (c. 1581–1632),Map of the Pacific Ocean, 1622, Bibliothèque nationale de France, Paris, département des Cartes et Plans, SH, Arch. 30
^Spieghel der Australische Navigatie; cited by A. Lodewyckx, "The Name of Australia: Its Origin and Early Use",The Victorian Historical Magazine, Vol. XIII, No. 3, June 1929, pp. 100–191.
^abBarros Arana, Diego."Capítulo XI".Historia general de Chile (in Spanish). Vol. Tomo cuarto (Digital edition based on the second edition of 2000 ed.). Alicante: Biblioteca Virtual Miguel de Cervantes. p. 280.
^Andrew Cook, Introduction toAn account of the discoveries made in the South Pacifick Ocean / by Alexander Dalrymple ; first printed in 1767, reissued with a foreword by Kevin Fewster and an essay by Andrew Cook, Potts Point (NSW), Hordern House Rare Books for the Australian National Maritime Museum, 1996, pp. 38–9.
^The St. James's Chronicle, 11 June andThe Public Advertiser, 13 June 1768.
^The St. James's Chronicle, 18 June,The Gazetteer, 20 June andThe Westminster Journal, 25 June 1768.
^Lloyd's Evening Post, 5 August,The St. James's Chronicle, 6 August,Courier du Bas-Rhin (Cleves), 1768.
^Also inLloyd's Evening Post, 19 August andThe New York Journal, 3 November 1768.
^Avan Judd Stallard, "Origins of the Idea of Antipodes: Errors, Assumptions, and a Bare Few Facts",Terrae Incognitae, Volume 42, Number 1, September 2010, pp. 34–51.
^Lavo (Thai ลพบร) was named after Lavo, the son ofRama inHindu mythology). (G. E. Gerini,Researches on Ptolemy's geography of Eastern Asia (further India and Indo-Malay archipelago), London, Royal Asiatic Society, Asiatic Society Monographs vol.1, 1909, p. 180.
^Milione: il Milione nelle redazioni toscana e franco–italiana, Le Divisament dou Monde, Gabriella Ponchi (ed.), Milano, Arnoldo Mondadori Editore, 1982, p. 540: cap. clxiii, "La grant isle de Java".
^James R. McClymont, "The Theory of an Antipodal Southern Continent during the Sixteenth Century",Report of the Fourth Meeting of the Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science, Hobart, January 1892, Hobart, the Association, 1893, pp. 442–462; Paul Pelliot,Notes on Marco Polo, Paris, Imprimerie Nationale, 1963, Vol.II, p. 769.
^Simon Grynaeus and Johann Huttich,Novus Orbis Regionum ac Insularum, Basel and Paris, 1532, Marco Polo cap.xi, "De provincia Boëach"; cited in Thomas Suarez,Early Mapping of Southeast Asia, Hong Kong, Periplus, 1999, p. 160.
^Sir Henry Yule (ed.),The Book of Ser Marco Polo, London, Murray, 1921, Volume 2, pp. 276–280.
^Peter van der Krogt,Globi Neerlandici: The Production of Globes in the Low Countries, Utrecht, HES Publishers, 1993, p. 64, plate 2.14.
^J.E. Heeres, "Abel Janszoon Tasman, His Life and Labours",Abel Tasman's Journal, Los Angeles, 1965, pp. 137, 141–2; cited in Andrew Sharp,The Voyages of Abel Janszoon Tasman, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1968, pp.24-25.
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