Inmusical terminology,tempo (Italian for 'time'; plural 'tempos', ortempi from the Italian plural), measured inbeats per minute, is the speed or pace of a givencomposition, and is often also an indication of the composition's character or atmosphere. In classical music, tempo is typically indicated with an instruction at the start of a piece (often using conventional Italian terms) and, if a specific metrical pace is desired, is usually measured inbeats perminute (BPM). In modern classical compositions, a "metronome mark" in beats per minute, indicating only measured speed and not any form of expression, may supplement or replace the normal tempo marking, while in modern genres likeelectronic dance music, tempo will typically simply be stated in BPM.
Tempo (the underlying pulse of the music) is one of the three factors that give a piece of music itstexture. The others aremeter, which is indicated by atime signature, andarticulation, which determines how each note is sounded and how notes are grouped into larger units. While the ability to hold a steady tempo is a vital skill for a musical performer, tempo is malleable. Depending on the genre of a piece of music and the performers' interpretation, a piece may be played with slight variations in tempo, known astempo rubato, or significant variations. In ensembles, the tempo is often maintained by having players synchronise with aconductor or with a specific instrumentalist, for instance the first violin or thedrummer.
Although tempo is described or indicated in many different ways, including with a range of words (e.g., "Slowly", "Adagio", and so on), it is typically measured in beats per minute (bpm or BPM). For example, a tempo of 60 beats per minute signifies one beat per second, while a tempo of 120 beats per minute is twice as rapid, signifying two beats every second. Thenote value of a beat will typically be that indicated by the denominator of thetime signature. For instance, in4 4 time, the beat will be a crotchet, orquarter note.
This measurement and indication of tempo became increasingly popular during the first half of the 19th century, afterJohann Nepomuk Maelzel invented themetronome.Beethoven was one of the first composers to use the metronome; in the 1810s he published metronomic indications for the eight symphonies he had composed up to that time.[1]
With the advent of modern electronics, beats per minute became an extremely precise measure.Music sequencers use the bpm system to denote tempo.[2] In popular music genres such aselectronic dance music, accurate knowledge of a tune's bpm is important toDJs for the purposes ofbeatmatching.[3]
The speed of a piece of music can also be gauged according to measures per minute (mpm) or bars per minute (bpm), the number ofmeasures of the piece performed in one minute. This measure is commonly used inballroom dance music.[4]
In different musical contexts, different instrumental musicians, singers,conductors,bandleaders, music directors or other individuals will select the tempo of a song or piece. In apopular music ortraditional music group or band, the bandleader ordrummer may select the tempo. In popular and traditional music, whoever is setting the tempo often counts out one or two bars in tempo. In some songs or pieces in which a singer or solo instrumentalist begins the work with a solo introduction (prior to the start of the full group), the tempo they set will provide the tempo for the group. In an orchestra or concert band, the conductor normally sets the tempo. In a marching band, the drum major may set the tempo. In asound recording, in some cases arecord producer may set the tempo for a song (although this would be less likely with an experienced bandleader). Differences in tempo and its interpretation can differ between cultures, as shown by Curt Sachs when comparing Tunisian with Western Classical melodies, while certain genres display rhythmic variation in line with its forms, as occurs with flamenco and itspalos.[5]
Inclassical music, it is customary to describe the tempo of a piece by one or more words, most commonly in Italian, in addition to or instead of a metronome mark in beats per minute. Italian is typically used because it was the language of most composers during the time these descriptions became commonplace in the Western musical lexicon.[6] Some well-known Italian tempo indications include "Allegro" (English "Cheerful"), "Andante" ("Walking-pace") and "Presto" ("Quickly"). This practice developed during the 17th and 18th centuries, thebaroque andclassical periods. In the earlierRenaissance music, performers understood most music to flow at a tempo defined by thetactus (roughly the rate of the human heartbeat).[7] Themensuraltime signature indicated which note value corresponded to the tactus.
In the Baroque period, pieces would typically be given an indication, which might be a tempo marking (e.g.Allegro), or the name of a dance (e.g.Allemande orSarabande), the latter being an indication both of tempo and of metre. Any musician of the time was expected to know how to interpret these markings based on custom and experience. In some cases, however, these markings were simply omitted.[8] For example, the first movement ofBach'sBrandenburg Concerto No. 3 has no tempo or mood indication whatsoever. Despite the increasing number of explicit tempo markings, musicians still observe conventions, expecting aminuet to be at a fairly stately tempo, slower than aViennese waltz; aperpetuum mobile quite fast, and so on. Genres imply tempos, and thus,Ludwig van Beethoven wrote "In tempo d'un Menuetto" over the first movement of his Piano Sonata Op. 54, though that movement is not a minuet.
Many tempo markings also indicate mood and expression. For example,presto andallegro both indicate a speedy execution (presto being faster), butallegro also connotes joy (from its original meaning in Italian).Presto, on the other hand, simply indicates speed. Additional Italian words also indicate tempo and mood. For example, the "agitato" in theAllegro agitato of the last movement ofGeorge Gershwin'spiano concerto in F has both a tempo indication (undoubtedly faster than a usualAllegro) and a mood indication ("agitated").
Here follows a list of common tempo markings. The beats per minute (bpm) values are very rough approximations for4 4 time, and vary widely according to composers and works. A metronome marking cannot be deduced from one of the descriptive Italian or non-Italian terms alone. Where both metronome marking and a word indication occur together, the verbal cue is often also intended to express a style or feeling, which a metronome marking alone cannot do.
It is therefore important to remember that the exact sense of many of these terms has changed over time. One striking example is the use of the termAllegretto. Between its early use in the 18th century and its later use from the 19th century onwards, it has experienced a slight increment in the tempo that it is intended to denote. Originally it implied a tempo very slightly faster thanAndante, whereas now it is often used to indicate one that is just a little slower thanAllegro. A similar fate has befallen the termsAdagietto andAndantino.[10] Likewise, the termsLargo andAdagio have experienced a considerable shift with regards to the tempi, in beats per minute, that they are required to express: A modernLargo is slower thanAdagio, but in the Baroque period it was faster.[11]
Larghissimo – extremely slow, slowest type of tempo (24 bpm and under)
Adagissimo andGrave – very slow and solemn (24–40 bpm)
Largo – slow and broad (40–66 bpm)
Larghetto – rather slow and broad (44–66 bpm)
Adagio – slow with great expression[12] (44–66 bpm)
Adagietto – slower thanandante or slightly faster thanadagio (46–80 bpm)
Lento – slow (52–108 bpm)
Andante – at a walking pace, moderately slow (56–108 bpm)
Andantino – slightly faster thanandante, but slower thanmoderato (80–108 bpm) (although, in some cases, it can be taken to mean slightly slower thanandante)
Marcia moderato – moderately, in the manner of a march[13] (66–80 bpm)
L'istesso,L'istesso tempo, orLo stesso tempo – at the same speed;L'istesso is used when the actual speed of the music has not changed, despite apparent signals to the contrary, such as changes in time signature or note length (half notes in4 4 could change to whole notes in2 2, and they would all have the same duration)[18][19]
Ma non tanto – but not so much; used in the same way and has the same effect asMa non troppo (see immediately below) but to a lesser degree
Ma non troppo – but not too much; used to modify a basic tempo to indicate that the basic tempo should be reined in to a degree; for example,Adagio ma non troppo to mean "Slow, but not too much",Allegro ma non troppo to mean "Fast, but not too much"
One of the first German composers to use tempo markings in his native language wasLudwig van Beethoven, but only sparsely.Robert Schumann followed afterwards with increasingly specific markings, and later composers likeHindemith andMahler would further elaborate on combined tempo and mood instructions in German. For example, the secondmovement of Mahler'sSymphony No. 9 is markedIm Tempo eines gemächlichen Ländlers, etwas täppisch und sehr derb, indicating a slowish folk-dance-like movement, with some awkwardness and much vulgarity in the execution. Mahler would also sometimes combine German tempo markings with traditional Italian markings, as in the first movement of hissixth symphony, markedAllegro energico, ma non troppo.Heftig, aber markig (Energetically quick, but not too much. Violent, but vigorous.)[23]
English indications, for example 'quickly', have also been used, byBenjamin Britten andPercy Grainger, among many others. Injazz andpopular musiclead sheets andfake book charts, terms like 'fast', 'laid back', 'steady rock', 'medium', 'medium-up', 'ballad', 'brisk', 'brightly', 'up', 'slowly', and similar style indications may appear. In somelead sheets and fake books, both tempo and genre are indicated, e.g., 'slow blues', 'fast swing', or 'medium Latin'. The genre indications helprhythm section instrumentalists use the correct style. For example, if a song says 'medium shuffle', the drummer plays ashuffle drum pattern; if it says 'fast boogie-woogie', the piano player plays aboogie-woogie bassline.
'Show tempo', a term used since the early days ofvaudeville, describes the traditionally brisk tempo (usually 160–170 bpm) of opening songs instage revues and musicals.
HumouristTom Lehrer uses facetious English tempo markings in his anthologyToo Many Songs by Tom Lehrer. For example, "National Brotherhood Week" is to be played 'fraternally'; "We Will All Go Together" is marked 'eschatologically'; and 'MasochismTango' has the tempo 'painstakingly'. His English contemporariesFlanders and Swann have similarly marked scores, with the music for their song "The Whale (Moby Dick)" shown as 'oceanlike and vast'.
Tempo is not necessarily fixed. Within a piece (or within a movement of a longer work), a composer may indicate a complete change of tempo, often by using adouble bar and introducing a new tempo indication, often with a newtime signature and/orkey signature.[citation needed]
It is also possible to indicate a more or less gradual change in tempo, for instance with anaccelerando (speeding up) orritardando (rit., slowing down) marking. Indeed, some compositions chiefly compriseaccelerando passages, for instanceMonti'sCsárdás, or the Russian Civil War songEchelon Song.[citation needed]
Composers may use expressive marks to adjust the tempo:
Accelerando – speeding up (abbreviation:accel.); the opposite of ritardando. It is defined by gradually increasing the tempo until the next tempo mark is noted. It is either marked by a dashed line or simply its abbreviation.
Affrettando – speeding up with a suggestion of anxiety[24]
Allargando – growing broader; decreasing tempo, usually near the end of a piece
Calando – going slower (and usually also softer)
Doppio movimento /doppio più mosso – double-speed
Doppio più lento – half-speed
Lentando – gradually slowing, and softer
Meno mosso – less movement; slower
Meno moto – less motion
Più mosso – more movement; faster
Mosso – movement, more lively; quicker, much likepiù mosso, but not as extreme
Precipitando – hurrying; going faster/forward
Rallentando – a gradual slowing down (abbreviation:rall.)
Ritardando – slowing down gradually; also see rallentando and ritenuto (abbreviations:rit.,ritard.) sometimes replaces allargando.
Ritenuto – slightly slower, but achieved more immediately thanrallentando orritardando; a sudden decrease in tempo; temporarily holding back.[25] (Note that the abbreviation forritenuto can also berit. Thus a more specific abbreviation isriten. Also, sometimesritenuto does not reflect a tempo change but rather a 'character' change.)
Rubato – free adjustment of tempo for expressive purposes, literally "stolen"—so more strictly, to take time from one beat to slow another
Stretto – in a faster tempo, often used near the conclusion of a section. (Note that infugal compositions, the termstretto refers to the imitation of the subject in close succession, before the subject is completed, and as such, suitable for the close of the fugue.[26] Used in this context, the term is not necessarily related to tempo.)
Stringendo – pressing on faster, literally "tightening"
Tardando – slowing down gradually (same asritardando)[27]
While the base tempo indication (such asAllegro) typically appears in large type above thestaff, adjustments typically appear below the staff or, in the case of keyboard instruments, in the middle of the grand staff.
They generally designate agradual change in tempo; for immediate tempo shifts, composers normally just provide the designation for the new tempo. (Note, however, that whenPiù mosso orMeno mosso appears in large type above the staff, it functions as a new tempo, and thus implies an immediate change.) Several terms, e.g.,assai,molto,poco,subito, control how large and how gradual a change should be (seecommon qualifiers).
After a tempo change, a composer may return to a previous tempo in two ways:
a tempo – returns to the base tempo after an adjustment (e.g.ritardando ... a tempo undoes the effect of the ritardando).
Tempo primo orTempo Io – denotes an immediate return to the piece's original base tempo after a section in a different tempo (e.g.Allegro ... Lento ... Moderato ... Tempo Io indicates a return to theAllegro). This indication often functions as a structural marker in pieces inbinary form.
These terms also indicate an immediate, not a gradual, tempo change. Although they are Italian, composers tend to employ them even if they have written their initial tempo marking in another language.
One difficulty in defining tempo is the dependence of its perception on rhythm, and, conversely, the dependence of rhythm perception on tempo. Furthermore, the tempo-rhythm interaction is context dependent, as explained byAndranik Tangian[29][30] using an example of the leading rhythm of ″Promenade″ fromModest Mussorgsky'sPictures at an Exhibition:
This rhythm is perceived as it is rather than as the first three events repeated at a double tempo (denoted asR012 = repeat from 0, one time, twice faster):
R012
However, the motive with this rhythm in the Mussorgsky's piece
is rather perceived as a repeat
R012
This context-dependent perception of tempo and rhythm is explained by the principle of correlative perception, according to which data are perceived in the simplest way. From the viewpoint ofKolmogorov's complexity theory, this means such a representation of the data that minimizes the amount of memory.
The example considered suggests two alternative representations of the same rhythm: as it is, and as the rhythm-tempo interaction — a two-level representation in terms of a generative rhythmic pattern and a "tempo curve". Table 1 displays these possibilities both with and without pitch, assuming that one duration requires one byte of information, one byte is needed for the pitch of one tone, and invoking the repeat algorithm with its parametersR012 takes four bytes. As shown in the bottom row of the table, the rhythm without pitch requires fewer bytes if it is "perceived" as it is, without repetitions and tempo leaps. On the contrary, its melodic version requires fewer bytes if the rhythm is "perceived" as being repeated at a double tempo.
Complexity of representation of time events
Rhythm only
Rhythm with pitch
Complete coding
Coding as repeat
Complete coding
Coding as repeat
R012
R012
Complexity of rhythmic pattern
6 bytes
3 bytes
12 bytes
6 bytes
Complexity of its transformation
0 bytes
4 bytes
0 bytes
4 bytes
Total complexity
6 bytes
7 bytes
12 bytes
10 bytes
Thus, the loop of interdependence of rhythm and tempo is overcome due to the simplicity criterion, which "optimally" distributes the complexity of perception between rhythm and tempo. In the above example, the repetition is recognized because of additional repetition of the melodic contour, which results in a certain redundancy of the musical structure, making the recognition of the rhythmic pattern "robust" under tempo deviations. Generally speaking, the more redundant the "musical support" of a rhythmic pattern, the better its recognizability under augmentations and diminutions, that is, its distortions are perceived as tempo variations rather than rhythmic changes:
By taking into account melodic context, homogeneity of accompaniment, harmonic pulsation, and other cues, the range of admissible tempo deviations can be extended further, yet still not preventing musically normal perception. For example,Scriabin's own performance of his "Poem", Op. 32, No. 1, transcribed from a piano-roll recording contains tempo deviations within. = 19/119, a span of 5.5 times.[31] Such tempo deviations are strictly prohibited, for example, in Bulgarian or Turkish music based on so-called additive rhythms with complex duration ratios, which can also be explained by the principle of correlativity of perception. If a rhythm is not structurally redundant, then even minor tempo deviations are not perceived asaccelerando orritardando but rather given an impression of a change in rhythm, which implies an inadequate perception of musical meaning.[32]
While many composers have retained traditional tempo markings, sometimes requiring greater precision than in any preceding period, others have begun to question basic assumptions of the classical tradition like the idea of a consistent, unified, repeatable tempo.Graphic scores show tempo and rhythm in a variety of ways.Polytemporal compositions deliberately utilise performers playing at marginally different speeds.John Cage's compositions approach tempo in diverse ways. For instance,4′33″ has a defined duration, but no actual notes, whileAs Slow as Possible has defined proportions but no defined duration, with one performance intended to last 639 years.[citation needed]
In popular music genres such asdisco,house music andelectronic dance music, beatmatching is a technique thatDJs use that involves speeding up or slowing down a record (orCDJ player, a speed-adjustableCD player for DJ use) to match the tempo of a previous or subsequent track, so both can be seamlessly mixed. Having beatmatched two songs, the DJ can either seamlesslycrossfade from one song to another, or play both tracks simultaneously, creating a layered effect.[33][34][35]
DJs often beatmatch the underlying tempos of recordings, rather than their strict bpm value suggested by the kick drum, particularly when dealing with high tempo tracks. A 240 bpm track, for example, matches the beat of a 120 bpm track without slowing down or speeding up, because both have an underlying tempo of 120 quarter notes per minute. Thus, some soul music (around 75–90 bpm) mixes well with a drum and bass beat (from 150 to 185 bpm). When speeding up or slowing down a record on a turntable, the pitch and tempo of a track are linked: spinning a disc 10% faster makes both pitch and tempo 10% higher. Software processing to change the pitch without changing the tempo is calledpitch-shifting. The opposite operation, changing the tempo without changing the pitch, is calledtime-stretching.[citation needed]
^Some of these markings are today contentious, such as those on his"Hammerklavier" Sonata andNinth Symphony, seeming to many to be almost impossibly fast, as is also the case for many of the works ofSchumann. See "metronome" entry inApel 1969, p. 523.
^"Con grazia".Merriam-Webster. Retrieved8 October 2021.
^Percy A. Scholes (1944).The Oxford Companion to Music, self-indexed and with a pronouncing glossary, 5th ed. London; New York; Toronto: Oxford University Press.
^"Lamentoso".Merriam-Webster. Retrieved8 October 2021.
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