𐤁𐤕 𐤀𐤔𐤌𐤍 | |
 Throne of Astarte at the Eshmun Temple | |
  Temple of Eshmun Shown within Lebanon Show map of Lebanon Temple of Eshmun Temple of Eshmun (Near East) Show map of Near East | |
| Location | Bustan el-Sheikh, nearSidon, Lebanon |
|---|---|
| Coordinates | 33°35′08″N35°23′53″E / 33.58556°N 35.39806°E /33.58556; 35.39806 |
| History | |
| Builder | Eshmunazar II,Bodashtart |
| Founded | 7th century BC |
| Abandoned | 4th century AD |
| Cultures | Phoenician,Achaemenid,Hellenistic andRoman |
| Site notes | |
| Discovered | 1900 |
| Excavation dates |
|
| Archaeologists | |
| Condition | Ruined |
| Ownership | Government of Lebanon |
| Management | Directorate General of Antiquities[1] |
| Public access | Yes (for a fee) |
| Architecture | |
| Architectural styles | Phoenician,Achaemenid,Hellenistic andRoman |
TheTemple of Eshmun (Arabic:معبد أشمون) is an ancientplace of worship dedicated toEshmun, thePhoenician god of healing. It is located near theAwali river, 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) northeast ofSidon in southwesternLebanon. The site was occupied from the 7th century BC to the 8th century AD, suggesting an integrated relationship with the nearby city of Sidon. Although originally constructed by Sidonian kingEshmunazar II in theAchaemenid era (c. 529–333 BC) to celebrate the city's recovered wealth and stature, the temple complex was greatly expanded byBodashtart,Yatonmilk and later monarchs. Because the continued expansion spanned many centuries of alternating independence and foreignhegemony, the sanctuary features a wealth of different architectural and decorative styles and influences.
The sanctuary consists of anesplanade and a grand court limited by a hugelimestone terrace wall that supports a monumentalpodium which was once topped by Eshmun's Greco-Persian stylemarble temple. The sanctuary features a series of ritualablution basins fed by canals channeling water from the Asclepius river (modernAwali) and from the sacred "YDLL" spring;[nb 1] these installations were used for therapeutic and purificatory purposes that characterize the cult of Eshmun. The sanctuary site has yielded many artifacts of value, especially those inscribed withPhoenician texts, such as theBodashtart inscriptions and theEshmun inscription, providing valuable insight into the site's history and that of ancient Sidon.
The Eshmun Temple was improved during the earlyRoman Empire with a colonnade street, but declined after earthquakes and fell into oblivion asChristianity replacedpolytheism and its large limestone blocks were used to build later structures. The temple site was rediscovered in 1900 by localtreasure hunters who stirred the curiosity of international scholars.Maurice Dunand, a French archaeologist, thoroughly excavated the site from 1963 until the beginning of theLebanese Civil War in 1975. After the end of the hostilities and the retreat ofIsrael fromSouthern Lebanon, the site was rehabilitated and inscribed to theWorld Heritage Site tentative list.
Eshmun (Latinized form of thePhoenician𐤀𐤔𐤌𐤍) was the Phoenician god of healing and renewal of life; he was one of the most important divinities of thePhoenician pantheon and the main male divinity ofSidon. Originally a nature divinity, and a god of spring vegetation, Eshmun was equated toBabylonian deityTammuz. His role later expanded within the Phoenician pantheon, and he gained celestial and cosmic attributes.[2] The myth of Eshmun was related by the sixth century SyrianNeoplatonist philosopherDamascius and ninth centuryPatriarch of Constantinople,Photius. They recount that Eshmun, a young man fromBeirut, was hunting in the woods whenAstarte saw him and was stricken by his beauty. She harassed him with her amorous pursuit until heemasculated himself with anaxe and died. The grieving goddess revived Eshmun and transported him to the heavens where she made him into a god ofheaven.[nb 2][3]
From a historical perspective, the first written mention of Eshmun goes back to 754 BC, the date of the signing of the treaty betweenAssyrian kingAshur-nirari V and Mati'el, king ofArpad; Eshmun figures in the text as a patron of the treaty.[4] Eshmun was identified withAsclepius as a result of the Hellenic influence over Phoenicia; the earliest evidence of this equation is given by coins fromAmrit andAcre from the third century BC. This fact is exemplified by the Hellenized names of theAwali river which was dubbedAsclepius fluvius, and the Eshmun Temple's surrounding groves, known as the groves of Asclepius.[2]
In the 9th century BC, theAssyrian kingAshurnasirpal II conqueredthe Lebanon mountain range and its coastal cities. The new sovereigns exacted tribute from Sidon, along with every otherPhoenician city. These payments stimulated Sidon's search for new means of provisioning and furthered Phoenician emigration and expansion, which peaked in the 8th century BC.[4] When Assyrian kingSargon II died in 705 BC, KingLuli joined with theEgyptians andJudah in an unsuccessful rebellion against Assyrian rule,[5] but was forced to flee toKition (modernLarnaca in Cyprus) with the arrival of the Assyrian army headed bySennacherib, Sargon II's son and successor. Sennacherib instatedIttobaal on the throne of Sidon and reimposed the annual tribute.[5][6] WhenAbdi-Milkutti ascended to Sidon's throne in 680 BC, he also rebelled against the Assyrians. In response, the Assyrian kingEsarhaddon laid siege to the city. Abdi-Milkutti was captured and beheaded in 677 BC after a three-year siege, while his city was destroyed and renamed Kar-Ashur-aha-iddina (the harbor of Esarhaddon). Sidon was stripped of its territory, which was awarded toBaal I, the king of rivalTyre, and loyalvassal to Esarhaddon.[4][7][8] Baal I andEsarhaddon signed a treaty in 675 in which Eshmun's name features as one of the deities invoked as guarantors of the covenant.[nb 3][3][9]
Sidon returned to its former level of prosperity while Tyre was besieged for 13 years (586–573 BC) byNebuchadnezzar II.[10] Nevertheless, the Sidonian king was still held in exile at the court ofBabylon.[4][11] Sidon reclaimed its former standing as Phoenicia's chief city in theAchaemenid Empire (c.529–333 BC).[4][11][12]Eshmunazar I, a priest of Astarte, and the founder of his namesake dynasty, became king around the time of the Achaemenid conquest of theLevant. Archaeological evidence suggest that, at the time of the advent of the Eshmunazar dynasty, there already was a cultic space on the site of the temple, but there were no monumental constructions yet. Originally, the center of worship may have been a cave or a spring.[13]In the following years,Xerxes I awarded king Eshmunazar II with theSharon plain[nb 4] for employing Sidon's fleet in his service during theGreco-Persian Wars.[4][11][12] Eshmunazar II displayed his new-found wealth by constructing numerous temples to Sidonian divinities. Inscriptions found on the king'ssarcophagus reveal that he and his mother,Amoashtart, built temples to the gods of Sidon,[4] including the Temple of Eshmun by the "Ydll source near the cistern".[14][15]
As theBodashtart inscriptions on the foundations of the monumental podium attest, construction of the sanctuary's podium did not begin until the reign of KingBodashtart.[16] The first set of inscriptions bears the name of Bodashtart alone, while the second contains his name and that of the crown princeYatonmilk.[4][17] Thirty foundation inscriptions are known to date;[18] they were found concealed in the interior of the podium. The practice of intentional inscription concealment can be traced back to Mesopotamian roots, and it has parallels in the royal buildings of the Achaemenids in Persia and Elam.[19] A Phoenician inscription, located 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) upstream from the temple, that dates to the 7th year of Bodashtart's reign, alludes to water adduction works from the Awali river to the "Ydll" source that was used forritual purification at the temple.[4][20]
The Eshmun sanctuary was damaged by an earthquake in the fourth century BC, which demolished the marble temple atop the podium; this structure was not rebuilt but many chapels and temples were later annexed at the base of the podium.[21][22] The temple site remained a place of pilgrimage in theclassical antiquity during the early Roman Empire and until the advent of Christianity, when the cult of Eshmun was banned during thePersecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire and a Christian church was built at the temple site across theRoman street from the podium.[22][23] A Roman colonnade was built in the third century, probably by emperorSeptimius Severus, and a Roman Villa showed a period of renewed relative importance for the city during the late period ofPhoenicia under Roman rule. Furthermore, within the original Phoenician temple site the Romans added the processional stairway, the basins for ablutions and anymphaeum with pictorial mosaics, that are still largely intact. Worn statuettes of three nymphs stand in the niches of a Roman fountain.[24] Another earthquake hit Sidon around 570 AD;Antoninus of Piacenza, an Italian Christian pilgrim, described the city as partly in ruins. For many years after the disappearance of the cult of Eshmun, the sanctuary site was used as a quarry:[22] EmirFakhr-al-Din II used its massive blocks to build a bridge over the Awali river in the 17th century.[25] The site later fell into oblivion until the 19th century[22]
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Between 1737 and 1742,Richard Pococke, an Englishanthropologist, toured the Middle East and wrote of what he thought were ruins ofdefensive walls built with 3.7-metre (12 ft) stone blocks near the Awali river. When the FrenchorientalistErnest Renan visited the area in 1860, he noticed that the Awali bridgeabutments were built of finelyrusticated blocks that originated from an earlier structure. He also noted in his report,Mission de Phénicie, that a local treasure hunter told him of a large edifice near the Awali bridge.[26] The discovery was made in 1900 by four workers who were extracting blocks from the temple on behalf ofDruze notableNassib Jumblatt. They noticed that certain blocks had inscriptions with the engravings painted in red. A local antiques dealer bought three of the stones, all with the same inscription. Due to the enormous size of the blocks, they were cut down to just 15 or 20 cm in thickness, and some stones were also cut into two or three pieces.[27] The Ottoman authorities dispatchedTheodore Makridi, curator of theMuseum of Constantinople, who cleared the temple remains between 1901 and 1903.[26] Wilhelm Von Landau also excavated the site between 1903 and 1904.[4] In 1920, Gaston Contenau headed a team of archaeologists who again surveyed the temple complex.[26] The first extensive archaeological excavation revealing the Eshmun Temple remains was undertaken byMaurice Dunand between 1963 and 1975.[4][28] Archaeological evidence shows that the site was occupied from the seventh century BC to the eighth century AD.[29]
During theLebanese Civil War and theIsraeli occupation of South Lebanon (1985–2000), the temple site was neglected and was invaded by vegetation overgrowth;[30] it was cleared and recovered its former condition after the Israeli withdrawal. Today the Eshmun sanctuary can be visited all year round and free of charge, it is accessible from anexit ramp off the main Southern Lebanon highway near Sidon's northern entrance. The site holds a particulararchaeological importance since it is the best preserved Phoenician site in Lebanon;[31] it was added to theUNESCOWorld Heritage Tentative List's Cultural category onJuly 1, 1996.[29] In literature, the temple of Eshmun figures in Nabil Saleh's 2009 novel,The Curse ofEzekiel as the setting where Bomilcar falls in love and rescues princess Chiboulet from the evil design of one of the temple's priests.[32] The site was added to theUNESCOWorld Heritage Tentative List on July 11, 2019, in the Cultural category.[33] During the2024 Israeli invasion of Lebanon, UNESCO gave enhanced protection to 34 cultural sites in Lebanon including the sanctuary of Eshmun to safeguard it fromdamage.[34][35]
A number of ancient texts mention the Eshmun Temple and its location. ThePhoenician inscriptions on thesarcophagus of Eshmunazar II, a Sidonian king,[nb 5] commemorate the construction of a "house" for the "holy prince" Eshmun by the king and his mother, queen Amashtart, at the "Ydll source by the cistern".[36]Dionysius Periegetes, an ancientGreektravel writer, identified theEshmun temple by the Bostrenos River, and Antonin de Plaisance, a 6th-century ADItalianpilgrim recorded the shrine as near the riverAsclepius fluvius.[4][37][38][39]Strabo[nb 6] and other Sidonian sources describe the sanctuary and its surrounding "sacred forests" ofAsclepius, the Hellenized name of Eshmun, in written texts.[4] Located about 40 kilometres (25 mi) south ofBeirut and 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) northeast of Sidon, the Eshmun Temple sits on the southern bank of the modernAwali river, previously referred to as Bostrenos orAsclepius fluvius in ancient texts. Citrus groves, known asBustan el-Sheikh (Arabic:بستان الشيخ, the grove of theSheikh), occupy the ancient "sacred forests" of Asclepius and are a favorite summer picnic location for locals.[4][40]
Built underBabylonian rule (605–539 BC),[4] the oldest monument at the site was apyramidal building resembling aziggurat that included an access ramp to a water cistern.[41] Fragments of an early, Babylonian-style temple survived into modern time; these include marbletorus-shaped column bases with moldings, facetted columns, and bullprotome capitals. The Babylonian-style temple was dismantled around the middle of the 4th century BC.[42] The remains of the demolished temple were cast in afavissa that only contained material dating from the 5th and first half of the 4th century BC.[19][42]
The pyramidal structure was superimposed during thePersian period by a massiveashlar podium constructed from heavily bossed limestone blocks that measured more than 3 metres (9.8 ft) across by 1 metre (3.3 ft) thick, which were laid down in courses 1-metre (3.3 ft) high. The podium stands 22 metres (72 ft) high, runs 50 metres (160 ft) into the hillside, and boasts a 70-metre (230 ft) wide façade.[12][41] The terrace atop of the podium was once covered by a Greco-Persian style marble temple built in theIonic order around 500 BC.[42] The marble temple has been reduced to a few remaining stone fragments due to theft.[41][43] During theHellenistic period, the sanctuary was extended from the base of the podium across the valley.[42] To the east base of the podium stands a large chapel, 10.5 by 11.5 metres (34 ft × 38 ft), dating to the 4th century BC.[28][44] The chapel was adorned with a paved pool and a large stone "Throne of Astarte" carved of a single block ofgranite in the Egyptian style;[4][21][28] it is flanked by twosphinx figures and surrounded by two lion sculptures. The throne, attributed to the Sidonian goddessAstarte, rests against the chapel wall, which is embellished by relief sculptures of hunting scenes.[4][28] The once important Astarte basin lost its function during the 2nd century AD and was filled with earth and statue fragments.[44] The west base contains another 4th-century BC chapel – centered on a bullprotome toppedcapital – that remains preserved at theNational Museum of Beirut.[4][28]
Widely known as the "Tribune of Eshmun" because of its shape, the altar of Eshmun is a white marble structure dating to the 4th century BC. It is 2.15 metres (7.1 ft) long by 2.26 metres (7.4 ft) wide and 2.17 metres (7.1 ft) tall.[4][28][45] Unearthed in 1963 by Maurice Dunand, it stands on alimestonesocleplated with marble blocks that rest against a retaining wall.[46] The altar is adorned withHellenistic stylerelief sculptures and is framed by decorativemoldings,[4][28] one of which divides the altar into two distinctregisters of symmetrical composition. The upper register portrays 18 Greek deities,[nb 7] including two charioteers surrounding the Greek godApollo, who is depicted playing acithara (a type oflyre). The lower register honorsDionysus, who leads histhiasos (his ecstatic retinue) in a dance to the music of pipe and cithara players.[46] The Tribune is displayed at the National Museum of Beirut.[47]
Northeast of the site, another 3rd century BC temple stands adjacent to the Astarte chapel. Its 22-metre (72 ft) façade is built with large limestone blocks and displays a two-register relief decoration illustrating adrunken revelry in honor ofDionysus, the Greek god of wine. Among the temple reliefs, one shows a man attempting to seize a large rooster which was the common sacrificial animal for Eshmun-Asclepius.[22][49] The Eshmun Temple complex comprises an elaboratehydraulic installation channeling water from "Ydll" spring that is made up of an intricate system of water canals, a series of retaining basins, sacred ablution basins and paved pools. This system demonstrates the importance of ritual ablutions in Phoenician therapeutic cults.[42] Later vestiges date from theRoman epoch and include a colonnaded road lined with shops. Of the large marble columns bordering the Roman street only fragments and bases remain. TheRomans also built a monumental staircase adorned withmosaic patterns that leads to the top of the podium. To the right of the Roman road, near the entrance of the site stands anymphaeum withniches where statues of thenymphs once stood. The floor of the nymphaeum is covered by a mosaic depicting theMaenads. Across the colonnaded road, facing the nymphaeum, are the ruins of aRoman villa; only the villa's courtyard has survived along with the remains of a mosaic depicting thefour seasons. To the right of the processional Roman staircase stands a cubicaltar, also of Roman construction. Other Roman period structures include two columns of a great portico leading to pools and other cultic installations.[4][25][50]
Eshmun's cult enjoyed a particular importance at Sidon as he was the chief deity after 500 BC. Aside from the extramural sanctuary at Bustan el-Sheikh, Eshmun also had a temple within the city. The extramural Eshmun Temple was associated with purification and healing; ritual lustral ablutions were performed in the sanctuary's sacred basins supplemented by running water from the Asclepius River and the "Ydll" spring water which was considered to have a sacred character and therapeutic quality.[3][51] The healing attributions of Eshmun were combined with his divine consort Astarte'sfertilizing powers; the latter had an annex chapel with a sacred paved pool within the Eshmun sanctuary.[51] Pilgrims from all over the ancient world flocked to the Eshmun Temple leavingvotive traces of their devotion and proof of their cure.[52][53] There is evidence that from the 3rd century BC onwards there have been attempts to Hellenize the cult of Eshmun and to associate him with his Greek counterpart Asclepius, but the sanctuary retained its curative function.[54]
Apart from the large decorative elements, carved friezes and mosaics which were leftin situ, many artifacts were recovered and moved from the Eshmun Temple to theNational Museum of Beirut, theLouvre or are in possession of theLebanese directorate general of antiquities. Some of these smaller finds include a collection of inscribedostraca unearthed by Dunand providing rare examples of cursive Phoenician writing in the Phoenician mainland.[28] One of the recovered ostracon bears thetheophoric Phoenician name "grtnt" which suggests that veneration of the lunar-goddessTanit occurred in Sidon.[nb 8][55] A number of fragmented votive life-size sculptures of little children lying on their side and holding a pet animal or a small object were also recovered at the temple site; among the best known of these is theBaalshillem Temple Boy, a sculpture of a royal child holding a dove with his right hand. The boy's head is shaved, his torso is bare and his lower body is wrapped in a large cloth. The socle of this sculpture is inscribed with a dedication fromBaalshillem II,[nb 9][56] a Sidonian king to Eshmun, which illustrates the importance of the site to the Sidonian monarchy.[7][28][53] These votive sculptures appear to have been purposely broken after dedication to Eshmun and then ceremoniously cast into the sacred canal, probably simulating the sacrifice of the sick child. All of these sculptures represent boys.[54] A31.5 cm × 27 cm (12.4 in × 10.6 in) limestone bust of aKouros dating from the 6th century BC was found at the site, but unlike the archaic Greek kouroi this figure is not bare.[45] Among the notable finds is a golden plaque showinga snake curling on a staff, a Hellenic symbol of Eshmun.[21] and agranitealtar bearing the name ofEgyptianPharaohAchoris uncovered in the Eshmun sanctuary. This gift attests to the good relations between the Pharaoh and the kings of Sidon.[57][58] The repute of the sanctuary was far reaching. Cypriot pilgrims fromPaphos left marks of their devotion for Astarte on a marblestele inscribed both in Greek andCypriot syllabary at Astarte's shrine; this stele is now in the custody of the Lebanese directorate general of antiquities.[52]
Treasure hunters have sought out the Eshmun Temple since antiquity;[26] around 1900 artifacts bearing Phoenician inscriptions from the temple site found their way toBeirut'santiquities markets where they stirred the interest of theOttoman authorities and prompted a series of archeological digs.[59] During the civil war, upon a request from then Lebanese director general of antiquitiesMaurice Chehab, Maurice Dunand moved more than 2000 artifacts from Sidon to a subterranean chamber at theByblos crusader castle, 30 kilometres (19 mi) north of Beirut. In 1981, the depot was looted and around 600 sculptures and architectural elements were stolen and smuggled out of Lebanon.Rolf Stucky, ex-director of the Institute of Classical Archaeology ofBasel affirmed during a conference in Beirut inDecember 2009 the successful identification and return of eight sculptures to the Lebanese national museum.[59][60]
