معبد بعل | |
 The Temple of Bel's exterior in 2009 | |
  Shown within Syria | |
| Location | Palmyra, Syria |
|---|---|
| Coordinates | 34°32′49″N38°16′26″E / 34.547°N 38.274°E /34.547; 38.274 |
| Type | Temple |
| Height | 15 metres (49 ft) |
| History | |
| Material | Stone |
| Founded | 32 AD |
| Cultures | Palmyrene |
| Site notes | |
| Condition | Main building destroyed, exterior walls and gate survive |
| Ownership | Public |
| Public access | Inaccessible (in a war zone) |
| Type | Cultural |
| Criteria | i, ii, iv |
| Designated | 1980(4th session) |
| Part of | Site ofPalmyra |
| Reference no. | 23 |
| Region | Arab States |
| Endangered | 2013–present |
TheTemple of Bel (Arabic:معبد بعل), sometimes also referred to as the "Temple ofBaal", was an ancient temple located inPalmyra, Syria. The temple, consecrated to theMesopotamian godBel, worshipped at Palmyra in triad with the lunar godAglibol and the sun godYarhibol, formed the center of religious life inPalmyra and was dedicated inAD 32.[1][2] The temple would have been closed during thepersecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire in a campaign against the temples of the East made byMaternus Cynegius,Praetorian Prefect of Oriens, between 25 May 385 to 19 March 388.[3] Its ruins were considered among the best preserved at Palmyra,[4] until they were further destroyed by theIslamic State in August 2015.[5] The arched main entrance into the temple is still intact,[6] as well as its exterior walls and fortified gate.
The temple was built on atell withstratification indicating human occupation that goes back to the third millennium BC. The area was occupied in pre-Roman periods with a former temple that is usually referred to as "the first temple of Bel" and "theHellenistic temple". The walls of thetemenos andpropylaea were constructed in the late first and the first half of the second century AD. The names of three Greeks who worked on the construction of the temple of Bel are known through inscriptions, including an architect named Alexandras (Greek:Αλεξάνδρας).[7][8] However, many Palmyrenes adopted Greco-Roman names and native citizens with the name Alexander are attested in the city.[9]
The Temple of Bel was converted into a Christian church during theByzantine Era.[10] Parts of the structure were modified by Arabs in 1132 which preserved the structure and converted the Temple into a mosque. The enormous temple courtyard (approx. 200 x 200 meters) held mud-brick houses among the ruins, and served as a fortified citadel for the village ofPalmyra (known as Tadmur during the 1100s). The mosque in the temple proper and the dwellings remained in use until the 1920s when Franco-Syrian archaeological missions cleared the temple grounds of its postclassical elements.[11][12] Most of theCorinthian columns of the innercolonnades still showed pedestals where the statues of the benefactors stood.[2] The temple was aligned along the eastern end of theGreat Colonnade at Palmyra.
The temple showed a remarkable synthesis ofancient Near Eastern andGreek cultures.[1] The temple remains lay inside a largeprecinct lined byporticos. It had a rectangular shape and was oriented north–south.[1] It was based on a paved court surrounded by a massive 205-metre (673 ft) long wall with apropylaeum. On apodium in the middle of thecourt was the actual temple building. Thecella was entirely surrounded by aprostyle of Corinthian columns, only interrupted on the long side by an entrance gate with large steps leading from the court. The cella was unique in the fact that it had two inner sanctuaries, the north and southadytons, dedicated as the shrines of Bel and other local deities. The northern chamber was known for abas-relief carving of theseven planets known to the ancients surrounded by the twelve signs of theZodiac and the carvings of a procession of camels and veiled women.[13] The cella was lit by two pairs of windows cut high in the two long walls.[1][2] In three corners of the building stairwells could be found that led up to rooftop terraces.[1]
In the court there were the remains of abasin, analtar, a dining hall, and a building withniches. And in the northwest corner lay a ramp along whichsacrificial animals were led into the temple area.[2] There were three monumental gateways, of which the entry was through the west gate.
Syria's Director of Antiquities Maamoun Abdul Karim stated that ISIL was looking for treasures and "stores of gold" in the city.[14]On 30 August 2015, theAssociated Press reported that ISIS had partially demolished the temple by explosives, citing eyewitness accounts.[15][16] The bricks and columns were reported as lying on the ground and only one wall was reported as remaining, according to a Palmyra resident.[17][18] The damage was also attested by theSyrian Observatory for Human Rights.[19]
Syria's antiquities chief Maamoun Abdulkarim later stated that although there was an explosion within the temple's perimeter, "the basic structure is still standing".[20] However, these reports were proved to be incorrect.
On August 31, 2015 theUnited Nations confirmed the temple's destruction after reviewing satellite imagery, "We can confirm destruction of the main building of the Temple of Bel as well as a row of columns in its immediate vicinity" reported by theUnited Nations Institute for Training and Research (UNITAR).[21][5] The BBC issued a video report showing the satellite images and the destruction described by Einar Bjorgo, manager of UN Satellite Imaging (UNOSATUNITAR).[22]
The main entrance arch survived the destruction of the temple. TheInstitute for Digital Archaeology proposed that replicas of this arch be installed inTrafalgar Square,London andTimes Square,New York City.[23] It was later decided that instead of the temple's main entrance, the replica would be of part of theMonumental Arch.[24]
Following therecapture of Palmyra by the Syrian Army in March 2016, director of antiquities Maamoun Abdelkarim stated that the Temple of Bel, along with theTemple of Baalshamin and the Monumental Arch, will berebuilt using the surviving remains.[25][26] ISIL recaptured the city on 11 December,[27] but the Syrian Army retook it on 2 March 2017.[28]
In July 2017, the French company "Art Graphique et Patrimoine" travelled to Palmyra and scanned the Temple's rubble in order to create a plan for its restoration.[29]
The destruction of the Temple of Bel coincided with a boom in digital documentation and reconstruction technologies, and motivated a number of research and digital heritage organizations to engage in reconstruction projects. As the temple had been a popular tourist destination in Syria for many years, a great many images existed which portrayed the temple from many angles and viewpoints, making it an ideal candidate forphotogrammetric reconstruction.Wissam Wahbeh andStephen Nebiker, Researchers at theUniversity of Applied Sciences and Arts Northwestern Switzerland demonstrated this capability, created a 3D model using tourist images along with proprietary data held by photogrammetry pioneerGabriele Fangi.[30] TheNew Palmyra Project organized the donation of over 3,000 high resolution images and published the collection as open data onFlickr.com, which is ideal for reconstruction as the platform preserves image metadata enabling complex matching of images from multiple sources.[31] A comprehensive version, featuring full resolution reconstructions of reliefs, frescoes, and finely detailed decorative features, along with the raw data, was later published byUC San Diego Data ScientistScott McAvoy[32] in the hopes of encouraging continued collaboration informing future reconstruction efforts.[33]
Like the Temple of Bel, the Baal Shamin was converted into a church during the Byzantine period.
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