Atechnofossil refers togeological evidence of humantechnological activity preserved in Earth'sstrata that will persist for millions of years. These anthropogenic materials form distinctive markers in the geological record, with manygeologists,paleobiologists, andenvironmental researchers stating that they would provide future evidence of humanity's industrial and consumer-oriented civilization. Technofossils represent a significant aspect of the proposedAnthropoceneepoch, characterized by humanity's profound geological impact on the planet due to the mass production of synthetic resources, modified biological remains, and chemical orradioactive markers.[1][2]
The term "technofossil", first coined in 2014,[2] describesmanufactured or modified materials that possess sufficient durability to persist in Earth'sgeological record for millions of years. Unlike traditionalbiological fossils, technofossils result from humantechnological processes rather than natural and biological processes. These persistent artifacts form a distinctivestratigraphic signature that several geologists and environmental scientists state will remain identifiable to future geologists or intelligent entities examining Earth's history.[1][2][3]
University of Leicester Department of GeologyprofessorsJan Zalasiewicz, Mark Williams, andSarah Gabbott, consider technofossils a defining characteristic of theAnthropocene. Each theorize that their durability and vast global distribution are in the process of creating an unprecedented geological signature distinct from all previous geological epochs.[1] Williams described technofossils as eventually becoming the "defining imprint" of the Anthropocene, positing that future archaeologists would find the technofossil strata "more weird and wonderful, by far, than dinosaur bones."[4]
Synthetic polymers, due to their exceptional durability, massive production volumes, andglobal distribution, have led geologists to characterize them as the most ubiquitous and enduring technofossils. Many synthetic polymers exhibit chemical stability comparable to certain natural fossilized materials. Such items include single-use plastic products, particularly from fast food and consumer goods,microplastics distributed throughoutmarine sediments, and synthetic fabrics and textiles incorporating plastic fibers.[1][5][6]
Paleobiologists such as Zalasiewicz and Gabbott noted that certain ancient organic fossils, such as thecell walls of 50-million-year-oldgreen algae and the organic tubes ofgraptolites, contain compounds chemically similar to modernpolyethylene, suggesting the extraordinary longevity plastic materials will likely exhibit in the geological record.[1][3]
Synthetic textiles persist much longer than traditional natural fibers like cotton, linen, and silk, which readily decompose without special preservation conditions. Landfills can effectivelymummify discarded clothing, preserving these materials for potential technofossilization. The abrupt appearance of synthetic textiles would mark a clear stratigraphic boundary in the Earth's geological record, as they represent a complete departure from the millennia of biodegradable natural fiber production that preceded them. Modern textile production exceeds 100 billion garments annually, double the amount produced two decades ago.[1][7]
Concrete, exceeding 500 billion tonnes and possesses intrinsic qualities conducive to technofossilization, represents humanity's most abundant manufactured material.[8] The material's durability, and conditions such as urban centers in subsiding coastal areas, present ideal fossilization conditions. Environmental scientists state that concrete structures in cities likeNew Orleans, built belowsea level, will eventually submerge beneath sediment, preserving foundations,seawalls, andinfrastructure. Many geologists predict that these massive concrete deposits will create distinctivelithified zones within future rock strata, preserving the geometric and structural patterns of human civilization.[1][2]
While pure metals themselves rarely persist in geological records due to their reactivity, many geologists predict that metallic products will leave distinctive impressions and mineral formations indicative of prior human civilization.[7]
While aluminum drink containers will eventually dissolve, they can leave characteristic void spaces filled with distinctiveclay mineral assemblages.Copper wiring from electronics will gradually transform into copper mineral formations described as "visually striking", includingazurite,malachite, andbornite. Metal frameworks will also create distinctive void patterns as they graduallymineralize.[1][5] Sections of cell phones and wind turbines were also likely to be preserved.[3][7]
Humanity's impact on biological organisms will also create distinctive fossil records. Domesticated chicken bones represent the most numerous bird remains in Earth's history, with approximately 25 billion chickens alive at any moment. Modernbroiler chickens exhibit skeletal structures substantially different from theirwild ancestors, creating an abrupt morphological transition in the fossil record that many geologists believe would be apparent to futurepaleontologists. The sudden appearance of these selectively-bred and modified organisms, bred for rapid growth andmeat production, can provide evidence of human intervention inbiological evolution.[1][9]
Additionally, human remains in subsiding burial sites can preserve evidence of modern human population demographics, although they would be far outnumbered by the fossils of domesticated animals.[1][7]
More than 50 million kilometers of drilledoil and gas wells penetrate through geological strata, creating permanent alterations torock formations. Approximately 1,500 underground nuclear weapon tests have created distinctive spherical cavities lined with melted rock surrounded by complex fracture networks, producing uniquegeological features that geologists consider unlike any natural process.[1][10]
Mining operations have left extensivetunnel networks throughout the planet's crust, whileboreholes and other excavations create a global network of human-made geological alterations. These underground modifications represent indefinite changes to Earth'ssubsurface geology.[1][2]
Beyond physical artifacts, human civilization has created distinctive chemical signatures that will persist in the geological record.Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), commonly known as "forever chemicals," exhibit extraordinary persistence in the environment, and create distinctive chemical markers insedimentary deposits. Materials likepolytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) coatings are assessed to likely outlast the metal objects they cover, persisting as thin flexible films in the geological record. Synthetic compounds such asDDT anddioxins demonstrate extreme environmental persistence, comparable tobacterial biomolecules found preserved in 1.6-billion-year-oldAustralian rocks.[1][2][7]
Radioactive isotopes from nuclear weapons testing, particularly those conducted between 1952 and 1963, created a global stratigraphic marker distributed worldwide. Many geologists who proposed the formal declaration of the Anthropocene in 2024 considered the radiological signature as representing the primary candidate for defining the beginning of the epoch.[1][2][11]
Like traditional fossils, technofossils will require specific conditions for long-term preservation. Burial beneath sediment, particularly in marine or lacustrine environments, are believed to provide the most favorable conditions for preservation. Subsiding coastal urban areas provide proper conditions for preservation of human infrastructure, as gradually sinking land allows for sediment accumulation that protects artifacts from erosion and weathering.[1]
Landfills create artificial preservation environments that inhibit degradation by limitingoxygen exposure andmicrobial activity.[12] Deep geological formations provide stable preservation environments for subterranean technofossils, protecting them from surface erosional processes.[1][3][12]
Many technofossils will release chemicals into the environment over geological timeframes, potentially affecting futureecosystems.[1]
Some technofossils may unintentionally preserve cultural information. Paper documents demonstrate fossilization potential based on preserved ancient leaves and plant materials that underwent similar preservation processes.Graphite from pencils shows considerable geological stability, potentially preserving written or drawn information. Children's drawings are posited to represent potentially enduring human cultural expressions due to their simple graphite composition and potential for burial in sediments.Digital informationstorage media, despite their abundance, may prove less durable than older analog technologies, creating a potential gap in the cultural record preserved for future study.[1][2]
