Because of its location at the crossroads between Europe and Asia, and its proximity to the lucrativeSilk Road, throughout history, Tbilisi has been a point of contention among various global powers. To this day, the city's location ensures its position as an important transit route for energy and trade projects. Tbilisi's history is reflected in its architecture, which is a mix ofmedieval,neoclassical,Beaux Arts,Art Nouveau,Stalinist, andModern structures.
Until 1936, the name of the city in English and most other languages followed thePersian pronunciation[12]Tiflis, while theGeorgian name wasტფილისი (Ṭpilisi).[13] In some languages it is still known by its pre-1936 nameTiflis[a] (/ˈtɪflɪs/ⓘTIF-liss)[8]
On 17 August 1936, by order of theSoviet leadership, the official Russian names of various cities were changed to more closely match the local language.[13] In addition, the Georgian-language formṬpilisi was modernized on the basis of a proposal by Georgian linguists; the ancient Georgian componentტფილი (ṭpili, 'warm') was replaced by the newerთბილი (tbili).[13] That form was the basis for the new official Russian name (ТбилисиTbilisi). Most other languages have subsequently adopted the new name form, but some languages, such asTurkish,Persian,Greek,Spanish, andGerman, have retained a variation ofTiflis.
Some of the traditional names of Tbilisi in other languages of the region have different roots. TheOssetian nameКалак (Kalak) derives from the Georgian wordქალაქი (kalaki) meaning simply city.Chechen andIngush names for the city use a form similar to or the same as their names for the country of Georgia (ГуьржехGürƶex) as does the historicalKabardian name (КурджыKwrdžə), whileAbkhazҚарҭ (Ķarţ) is from theMingrelianქართი (Karti).
Archaeologists discovered evidence of continuous habitation of the Tbilisi suburb of Dighomi since the early Bronze Age, and stone artifacts dating to the Paleolithic age.[14]
During the late Bronze Age to early Iron Age, it was the largest settlement in the Caucasus.[15] According to legend, the present-day territory of Tbilisi was covered by forests as late as 458. One widely accepted variant of the Tbilisi foundation myth states that KingVakhtang I of Iberia (r. c. 447/49 – 502/22) went hunting in the heavily wooded region with afalcon (sometimes the falcon is replaced with either ahawk or other smallbirds of prey in the legend). The king's falcon allegedly caught or injured apheasant during the hunt, after which both birds fell into a nearbyhot spring and died from burns. King Vakhtang became so impressed with the hot springs that he decided to clear the forest and build a city on the location.
KingDachi of Iberia (r. 522–534), the successor of Vakhtang I, moved the capital of Iberia fromMtskheta to Tbilisi and began construction of the fortress wall that lined the city's new boundaries.[16] From the sixth century, Tbilisi grew at a steady pace due to the region's strategic location along with important trade and travel routes between Europe and Asia.
Remnants of ancient city walls discovered in central Tbilisi
Tbilisi's favorable trade location, however, did not necessarily bode well for its survival. Located strategically in the heart of theCaucasus between Europe and Asia, Tbilisi became an object of rivalry among the region's various powers such as theRoman Empire,Parthia,Sassanid Persia,Muslim Arabs, theByzantine Empire, and theSeljuk Turks. The cultural development of the city was somewhat dependent on who ruled the city at various times, although Tbilisi was fairly cosmopolitan.
From 570 to 580, the Persians ruled the city until 627, whenTbilisi was sacked by theByzantine/Khazar armies and later, in 736–738, Arab armiesentered the town underMarwan II. After this point, theArabs established anemirate centered in Tbilisi.Arabic dirhams were brought to Georgia following the Arab conquest in the seventh century, and a mint was founded in Tbilisi that produced coins with inscriptions in bothArabic and Georgian.[17] In 764, Tbilisi – still under Arab control – was once again sacked by the Khazars. In 852, the armies of Arab leaderBugha Al-Turki invaded Tbilisi in order to enforce its return toAbbasid allegiance.[18] The Arab domination of Tbilisi continued until about 1050. In 1065, theSeljuk SultanAlp Arslan campaigned against theKingdom of Georgia, subjugated Tbilisi, and built a mosque in the city.[19]
In 1121, after theBattle of Didgori against theSeljuks, the troops of KingDavid IV of Georgia besieged Tbilisi, taking it in 1122. David moved his residence fromKutaisi to Tbilisi, making it the capital of a unifiedGeorgian State, thus inaugurating theGeorgian Golden Age. From the 12–13th centuries, Tbilisi became a regional power with a thriving economy and astonishing cultural output. By the end of the 12th century, the population of Tbilisi had reached 100,000. The city also became an important literary and cultural center, not only for Georgia, but also for theEastern Orthodox world of the time. DuringQueen Tamar's reign,Shota Rustaveli worked in Tbilisi while writing his legendary epic poemThe Knight in the Panther's Skin. This period is often referred to as "Georgia's Golden Age"[20] or the GeorgianRenaissance.[21]
Detail from the Nautical chart byAngelino Dulcert, depicting Georgian Black Sea coast and Tiflis, 1339
Tbilisi's "Golden Age" did not last for more than a century. In 1226, Tbilisi was captured by theKhwarezmian Empire under ShahJalal al-Din, who massacred tens of thousands of Christians.[22] The Khwarezmian occupation left Tbilisi's defenses severely devastated and prone to further attacks by Mongol armies.[23] In 1236, after suffering crushingMongol defeats, Georgia submitted toMongol domination. The nation itself maintained a form of "semi-independence" and did not lose its statehood, but Tbilisi would be strongly influenced by the Mongols for the next century, both politically and culturally. In the 1320s, the Mongols retreated from Georgia, and Tbilisi became the capital of an independent Georgian state, once again. However, an outbreak of theBlack Death struck the city in 1366.[24]
Between the late 14th century and the late 18th century, Tbilisi would again be under the rule of various foreign powers. On several occasions, the city would even be completely burned and razed to the ground. On 22 November 1386, Tbilisi was sacked by the armies ofTimur.[25] Timur invaded theKingdom of Georgiaseven more times. In 1440, the city wasinvaded and looted byJahan Shah of theQara Qoyunlu.[26] From 1477 to 1478, the city was held by theAq Qoyunlu tribesmen ofUzun Hassan.[27]
As early as the 1510s, Tbilisi (and the kingdoms ofKartli andKakheti) were made vassal territories ofSafavid Iran.[28] In 1522, Tbilisi was garrisoned for the first time by a large Safavid force.[29][30] Following the death of king (shah)Ismail I (r. 1501–1524), kingDavid X of Kartli expelled the Iranians. During this period, many parts of Tbilisi were reconstructed and rebuilt. The four campaigns of the kingTahmasp I (r. 1524–1576) resulted in the reoccupation of Kartli and Kakheti, and a Safavid force was permanently stationed in Tbilisi from 1551 onwards,[29][31] reinforced with the 1555Treaty of Amasya.
From 1614 to 1747, with brief intermissions, Tbilisi was an important city under Iranian rule, and it functioned as a seat of the Iranian vassal kings of Kartli whom the shah conferred with the title ofvali. In 1718, the Venetian senate implored theSafavid emperorSoltan Hoseyn to protect the Catholic Armenians and Capuchin missionaries in Tbilisi from the Gregorian Armenians.[33] Under the later rules ofTeimuraz II andHeraclius II, Tbilisi became a vibrant political and cultural center free of foreign rule—but, fearful of the constant threat of invasion, Georgia's rulers sought Russian protection in the 1783Treaty of Georgievsk. Despite this agreement, the city wascaptured and devastated in 1795 by the IranianQajar rulerAgha Mohammad Khan.[34][35][36]
In 1801, theRussian Empire annexed the GeorgianKingdom of Kartli-Kakheti, of which Tbilisi was one of the most significant urban centers.[37] Within Tsarist Russia, Tbilisi (known then as Tiflis) was included within theTiflis Uyezd county in 1801, part of what was initially theGeorgia Governorate. Following the establishment of theTiflis Governorate (Gubernia) in 1846, Tbilisi became its capital. Russian Imperial administrators implemented a new Western-style city plan and commissioned new buildings and infrastructure, including roads and railroads connecting Tbilisi to other important cities in theRussian Empire, such asBatumi andPoti. By the 1850s, Tbilisi once again emerged as a major trade and cultural center, with many foreign, including Western European, entrepreneurs operating.[38]
After theRussian Revolution of 1917, the city served as a location of theTranscaucasus interim government which established, in the spring of 1918, the short-lived independentTranscaucasian Federation with the capital in Tbilisi. At this time, Tbilisi had roughly the same number of Armenians as Georgians, with Russians being the third largest ethnic group.[40] It was in the former Viceroy of the Caucasus's palace where the independence of three Transcaucasus nations – Georgia,Armenia andAzerbaijan – was declared by their respective national councils on 26 to 28 May 1918. After this, Tbilisi functioned as the capital of theDemocratic Republic of Georgia until 25 February 1921. From 1918 to 1919, the city also consecutively served as the headquarters of the country'sGerman garrison[41] and later theBritish27th Division;[42] Tbilisi was also the main office of the British Chief Commissioner in Transcaucasia,Oliver Wardrop[43] and the High Commissioner to Armenia, ColonelWilliam N. Haskell.[44]
Under the national government, Tbilisi turned into the first Caucasian University City after theTbilisi State University was founded in 1918.[45] On 25 February 1921, theBolshevist Russian 11thRed Army invaded[46][47] Tbilisi and after bitter fighting at the outskirts of the city, declared Soviet rule.
In 1921, theDemocratic Republic of Georgia wasoccupied by the SovietBolshevik forces from Russia, and until 1936, Tbilisi functioned first as the capital city of theTranscaucasian SFSR (which included Armenia,Azerbaijan, and Georgia), and afterward until 1991 as the capital of theGeorgian Soviet Socialist Republic. During Soviet rule, Tbilisi's population grew significantly, the city became more industrialized, and it also came to be an important political, social, and cultural centre of the Soviet Union. In 1980, the city hosted the first state-sanctionedrock festival in the USSR. As a major tourist destination for both Soviet citizens and foreign visitors, Tbilisi's "Old Town" (the neighborhoods within the original city walls) was reconstructed in the 1970s and 1980s.[48]
Tbilisi witnessed mass anti-Russian demonstrations during 1956 in the9 March Massacre, in protest against the anti-Stalin policies ofNikita Khrushchev.Peaceful protests occurred in 1978, and in 1989 theApril 9 tragedy was a peaceful protest that turned violent.
Since thebreak-up of the Soviet Union, Tbilisi has experienced periods of significant instability and turmoil. After a brief civil war, which the city endured for two weeks from December 1991 to January 1992 (when pro-Gamsakhurdia and Opposition forces clashed), Tbilisi became the scene of frequent armed confrontations among variousmafia clans and illegal business operators. During theShevardnadze Era (1992–2003), crime and corruption were rampant. Many segments of society became impoverished because of unemployment caused by the crumbling economy. Average citizens of Tbilisi started to become increasingly disillusioned with the existing quality of life in the city (and in the nation in general). Mass protests took place in November 2003 after falsified parliamentary elections forced more than 100,000 people into the streets and concluded with theRose Revolution. Since 2003, Tbilisi has experienced considerably more stability with decreasing crime rates, an improved economy, and a real estate boom.[49] During the2008 South Ossetia war, the Tbilisi area was hit by multiple Russian air attacks.
After the war, several large-scale projects were started, including a streetcar system,[50] a railway bypass and a relocation of thecentral station,[51] and new urban highways.[52] In June 2015,a flood killed at least twenty people and caused animals from thecity's zoo to be released into the streets.[53]
The status of Tbilisi, as the nation's capital, is defined by Article 10 of theConstitution of Georgia (1995) and theLaw on Georgia's Capital – Tbilisi (20 February 1998).[54]
Tbilisi is governed by theTbilisi City Assembly (Sakrebulo) and theTbilisi City Hall (Meria). The City Assembly and mayor are elected once every four years by direct elections. TheMayor of Tbilisi isKakha Kaladze and the Chairman of the Tbilisi city Assembly is Giorgi Alibegashvili.
Administratively, the city is divided intoraions (districts), which have their own units of central and local government with jurisdiction over a limited scope of affairs. This subdivision was established under Soviet rule in the 1930s, following the generalsubdivision of the Soviet Union. After Georgia regained independence, the raion system was modified and reshuffled. According to the latest revision, Tbilisi raions include:
Most of the raions are named after historic quarters of the city. The citizens of Tbilisi widely recognize an informal system of smaller historic neighborhoods. Such neighborhoods are several, however, constituting a kind of hierarchy, because most of them have lost their distinctive topographic limits. The natural first level of subdivision of the city is into the right and left banks of the Mtkvari river.
The names of the oldest neighborhoods go back to the early Middle Ages and sometimes pose a great linguistic interest. The newest whole-built developments bear chiefly residential marketing names.
In 19th-century Tbilisi, the Georgian quarter was confined to the southeastern part of the city; Baedeker describes the layout succinctly:
In the north part of the town, on the left bank of the Kurá and to the south of the railway station, stretches the clean German Quarter, formerly occupied by German immigrants from Württemberg (1818). To the south is the Gruzinian or Georgian Quarter (Avlabár). On the right bank of the Kurá is the Russian Quarter, the seat of the officials and of the larger business firms. This is adjoined on the south by the Armenian and Persian Bazaars.
— Karl Baedeker,Russia: A Handbook for Travelers[57]
Tbilisi, especially Old Town, has a complex terrain, with hills and cliffs.TheNational Botanical Garden of Georgia in Tbilisi is concealed from view as it resides among the hills of the Sololaki Range.
Tbilisi is located in theSouth Caucasus at 41° 43' North and 44° 47' East. The city lies inEastern Georgia on both banks of theKura River (locally known as Mtkvari). The elevation of the city ranges from 380–770 metresabove sea level (1,250–2,530 ft) and has the shape of an amphitheatre surrounded by mountains on three sides. To the north, Tbilisi is bounded by theSaguramo Range, to the east and south-east by theIori Plain, to the south and west by various endings (subranges) of theTrialeti Range.
The relief of Tbilisi is complex. The part of the city which lies on the left bank of the Kura River extends for more than 30 km (19 mi) from theAvchala District to River Lochini. The part of the city which lies on the right side of the river, though, is built along the foothills of theTrialeti Range, the slopes of which in many cases descend all the way to the edges of the river. The mountains, therefore, are a significant barrier to urban development on its right bank. This type of a geographic environment creates pockets of very densely developed areas, while other parts of the city are left undeveloped due to the complex topographic relief.
To the north of the city, a large reservoir (commonly known as the Tbilisi Sea) is fed by irrigation canals.
Tbilisi Sea, the city's largest body of water located in the suburbs.
Tbilisi has ahumid temperate climate (Köppen:Cfa,Trewartha:Do) with considerablecontinental andsemi-arid influences. The city experiences hot, humid summers and moderately cold dry winters. Like most other regions of Eastern Georgia, Tbilisi's precipitation maximum occurs in late spring and early summer, with a winter minimum in precipitation and a drought-like nadir in late summer. The city's climate is influenced both by dry (Central Asian/Siberian) air masses from the east andoceanic (Atlantic/Black Sea) air masses from the west. Because the city is bounded on most sides by mountain ranges, the close proximity to large bodies of water (Black andCaspian Seas) and the fact that the GreaterCaucasus Mountains Range (further to the north) blocks the intrusion of cold air masses from Russia, Tbilisi has a relatively mildmicroclimate compared to other cities that possess a similar climate along the same latitudes.
The average annual temperature in Tbilisi is 13.8 °C (56.8 °F). January is the coldest month with an average temperature of 2.7 °C (36.9 °F). July is the hottest month with an average temperature of 25.4 °C (77.7 °F). Daytime high temperatures reach or exceed 32 °C (90 °F) on an average of 22 days during a typical year. The absolute minimum recorded temperature is −24.4 °C (−11.9 °F) in January 1883 and the absolute maximum is 42.0 °C (107.6 °F) on 17 July 1882.[58] Average annual precipitation is 511.5 mm (20.1 in). May is the wettest month (averaging 84.0 mm (3.3 in) of precipitation) while January is the driest (averaging 16.4 mm (0.6 in) of precipitation). Snow falls on average 15–25 days per year. Maximum snow depth in the city center never exceeds 40 centimetres (16 in), although snow depths in the adjacent foothills and suburbs can surpass 70 centimetres (28 in). The surrounding mountains often trap the clouds within and around the city, mainly during the Spring and Autumn months, resulting in prolonged rainy and/or cloudy weather. Northwesterly winds dominate in most parts of Tbilisi throughout the year. Southeasterly winds are common as well.
Climate data for Tbilisi (1991–2020 normals, extremes 1881–present)
The largest stadium is theDinamo Arena (capacity 55,000), followed by theMikheil Meskhi Stadium (capacity 24,680). TheSports Palace hosts basketball games and tennis tournaments, with a seating capacity of about 11,000.Vere Basketball Hall is a smaller indoor sports arena seating 2,500.
Tbilisi co-hosted Group A matches of theEuroBasket 2022 tournament at the new 10,000-seat Tbilisi Arena, along with Czech Republic (Prague), Germany (Berlin, Cologne), and Italy (Milan).[79][80]
The majority of Georgia's media companies (including television, newspapers, and radio) are headquartered in Tbilisi. The city is home to major television channels such asRustavi 2,Imedi,TV Pirveli,Mtavari Arkhi,Formula,Maestro, and the Public Broadcasting Channel, among others.
Since 2019, Tbilisi's television market has undergone notable changes, particularly following ownership changes at Rustavi 2, which led to the creation of new television channels like Mtavari Arkhi and TV Formula.
Tbilisi has numerous newspaper publishing houses. Prominent newspapers include the daily24 Saati ("24 Hours"),Rezonansi ("Resonance"),Alia, the English-language dailyThe Messenger, weekly publications likeFINANCIAL, Georgia Today, andThe Georgian Times.
The architecture of Tbilisi is a blend of Georgian, Byzantine, Neoclassical, Art Nouveau, Beaux-Arts, Middle Eastern, and Soviet modern influences.[81] Few buildings survived the 1795 destruction of the city, so most historic structures date to the Russian Imperial period (1801–1917).
Tbilisi's old quarters (Kala, Abanotubani, Avlabari) were largely rebuilt following their medieval street plans. Downtown areas developed by Russian authorities, like Sololaki, Rustaveli Avenue, and Vera, show a European-style layout with Beaux-Arts, Orientalist, and revivalist architecture.
Tbilisi is particularly noted for its Art Nouveau buildings, especially in Sololaki and Chughureti, which flourished from the 1890s until the early Soviet era. Stalinist architecture, such as the 1938 Marx-Engels-Lenin Institute building (now theBiltmore Hotel Tbilisi), also left a mark on the city's landscape.
Post-World War II architecture introduced mass housing blocks in neighbourhoods like Saburtalo and Dighomi. Notable Soviet-era landmarks include the 1975Ministry of Roads building and the 1984Wedding Palace.
Brutalist architecture from the Soviet era is also a notable and distinctive feature of the city, including the former Ministry of Highway Construction building, now the headquarters of the Bank of Georgia in Tbilisi.[82]
TheTbilisi International Film Festival (TIFF) is organized annually by the Cinema Art Center Prometheus. It began in 2000 as part of a larger "Gift" festival, then became an independent event in 2002.[84] The main venue is located at 164 Agmashenebeli Avenue.[85]
Georgia's rising popularity as a travel destination has positioned Tbilisi as a major regional tourism hub. In 2019, the country welcomed over 9 million international visitors, significantly boosting Tbilisi's hospitality and service sectors.[87]
These venues attract world-renowned DJs and have helped position Tbilisi on the global electronic music map. The city also hosts a growing underground queer nightlife scene, gaining international media attention.[88][89][90]
With a nominal GDP of 32 billionGeorgian lari (€10 billion) as of 2022, Tbilisi is Georgia's economic powerhouse, generating more than half of the country's total GDP.[6] Its GDP per capita is 26,769 lari (€8,700), exceeding the national average by more than 50 percent.
The economy of Tbilisi is dominated by the service sector, particularly:
Wholesale and retail trade
Transport and logistics
Financial services
Hospitality and real estate
Reflecting its position as a regional hub, the city hosts the headquarters of most Georgian banks, major companies, and international organizations operating in the South Caucasus region.
The unemployment rate in Tbilisi stands at 22.5%, which is significantly higher than the national average.[91]
Tbilisi's public transport system is managed by the Transport and Urban Development Agency. After years of prioritizing private vehicles, the city has invested heavily in developing a green, accessible, and extensive public transit network since the 2010s. Today, the city is served by an international airport, metro, national rail, municipal buses, minibuses, cabs, aerial tramways, bike lanes, and a funicular railway.
Shota Rustaveli Tbilisi International Airport is the city's only international airport, located about 18 kilometres (11 miles) southeast of the city centre. Handling nearly 3 million passengers in 2022, it is the busiest airport in Georgia and a regional hub.[92] It is a hub forGeorgian Airways and other international carriers, offering direct flights to Europe, the Middle East, and Central Asia.
A secondary domestic airport atNatakhtari Airfield connects Tbilisi with Batumi, Mestia, and Ambrolauri.
TheTbilisi Metro operates two lines — the Akhmeteli–Varketili Line and the Saburtalo Line — with 23 stations and around 400,000 daily rides. Opened in 1966, it was the fourth metro system in the former Soviet Union. The system is known for its depth and ornate station designs.[93]
The metro is undergoing major upgrades, including full station renovations, better accessibility for people with disabilities, and new rolling stock acquisitions.
Tbilisi's bus network forms the backbone of urban transit. A major reorganisation launched in 2020 introducedBus Rapid Transit (BRT) corridors (TBT lines 300–310) served by articulated 18-metre-long buses, alongside more than 200 other city and local routes.[95]
New environmentally friendly buses — including MAN Lion's City CNG and ISUZU models — have replaced the ageing fleet since 2017.[96]
Cycling is gaining popularity, supported by a growing network of bike lanes. During theCOVID-19 pandemic, temporary cycle lanes were introduced, increasing the city's cycling network to over 20 km. The long-term plan aims to expand it to 350 km.[97]
Tbilisi had an electric tram network from 1904 until 2006, when it was dismantled. Projects to reintroduce modern trams have been proposed but remain unrealized.[98]
Private minibuses (marshrutka) continue to supplement the bus network, although their share is gradually decreasing following municipal reforms. In 2019, a new tender introduced modern minibuses with stricter safety and comfort standards.[99]
The Soviet-era tram between Rustaveli Avenue and Mtatsminda was dismantled after the tragic1990 Tbilisi aerial tramway accident, but reconstruction plans are underway.[100]
TheTbilisi Funicular, originally opened in 1905 and restored in 2012, connects Chonkadze Street toMtatsminda Park at the highest point of the city. The line provides access to panoramic views, theTbilisi TV Broadcasting Tower, and various recreational facilities.
Tbilisi is the principal centre of higher education in Georgia and the Caucasus region. It hosts many major universities and research institutions, drawing both local and international students.
The largest and oldest university in the Caucasus isTbilisi State University (TSU), founded on 8 February 1918. TSU has about 25,000 students and more than 5,000 faculty and staff.[101]
Other prominent public institutions include:
Tbilisi State Medical University, the largest medical university in the Caucasus, established in 1918 as part of TSU and operating independently since 1992.[102]
^Tbilisi is known by its former nameTiflis in a number of major languages, notably inSpanish,Persian,German,Turkish and others. Pre-1936Russian sources useTiflis as well
^"Number of population as of January 1" [Population of cities and towns as of January 1].National Statistics Office of Georgia. 1 January 2025. Retrieved15 July 2025.Tbilisi: 1 282.6 (thousands)
^Everett-Heath, John (2020). "Tbilisi (Tbilisi), Georgia (Tiflis)".The Concise Dictionary of World Place-Names (6 ed.). Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0191905636.Archived from the original on 28 May 2021. Retrieved28 February 2021.The former name is the Persian pronunciation, which is also used by Russians and Armenians. The present Georgian spelling was adopted in 1936.
^abc„როცა ტფილისი გახდა თბილისი." [When Tiflis became Tbilisi] (in Georgian). Radio Tavisupleba. 17 February 2005.Archived from the original on 28 May 2021. Retrieved1 May 2018.
^"ArticleEngl".geoarchencyclopedia.ge.Archived from the original on 15 December 2019. Retrieved16 April 2019.
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^"Country Overview". Invest in Georgia. Archived fromthe original on 1 January 2008. Retrieved2 February 2008.This early Georgian renaissance ... preceded its European analogue by several hundred years
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^Frederik Coene.Euro-Atlantic Discourse in Georgia: The Making of Georgian Foreign and Domestic Policy After the Rose Revolution.Routledge, Apr 14, 2016
^Hovannisian, Richard G. (1971–1996).The Republic of Armenia. Vol. 2. Berkeley: University of California Press. p. 130.ISBN0-520-01805-2.OCLC238471.
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