TheTao Te Ching is central to both philosophical and religious Taoism, and has been highly influential onChinese philosophy andreligious practice in general. It is generally taken as preceding theZhuangzi, the other core Taoist text.[9] Terminology originating within the text has been reinterpreted and elaborated upon byLegalist thinkers,Confucianists, and particularlyChinese Buddhists, introduced to China significantly after the initial solidification of Taoist thought. One of the most translated texts in world literature, the text is well known in the West.[9]
In English, the title is commonly renderedTao Te Ching, following theWade–Giles romanization, or asDaodejing, followingpinyin. It can be translated asThe Classic of the Way and its Power,[10]The Book of theTao and Its Virtue,[11]The Book of the Way and of Virtue,[12][13]The Tao and its Characteristics,[5]The Canon of Reason and Virtue,[6]The Classic Book of Integrity and the Way,[14]The Book of Virtues,[citation needed] orA Treatise on the Principle and Its Action.[15][16]
Ancient Chinese books were commonly referenced by the name of their real or supposed author, in this case the "Old Master",[17] Laozi. As such, theTao Te Ching is also sometimes called theLaozi, especially in Chinese sources.[9]
The titleTao Te Ching, designating the work's status as a classic, was first applied during the reign ofEmperor Jing of Han (157–141 BCE).[18] Other titles for the work include the honorificSutra of the Way and Its Power (道德真經;Dàodé zhēnjing) and the descriptiveFive Thousand Character Classic (五千文;Wǔqiān wén).
TheTao Te Ching is traditionally ascribed toLaozi, whose historical existence has been a matter of scholarly debate. His name, which means "Old Master", has only fueled controversy on this issue.[19] Legends claim variously that Laozi was "born old" and that he lived for 996 years, with 12 previous incarnations starting around the time of the Three Sovereigns before the 13th as Laozi. Some scholars have expressed doubts about Laozi's historicity.[20]
The first biographical reference to Laozi is in theRecords of the Grand Historian,[21] by Chinese historianSima Qian (c. 145–86 BCE), which combines three stories.[22] In the first, Laozi was a contemporary ofConfucius (551–479 BCE). His surname was Li (李), and his personal name was Er (耳) or Dan (聃). He was an official in the imperial archives, and wrote a book in two parts before departing to the West; at the request of the keeper of the Han-ku Pass,Yinxi, Laozi composed theTao Te Ching. In the second story, Laozi, also a contemporary of Confucius, was Lao Laizi (老萊子), who wrote a book in 15 parts. Third, Laozi was the grand historian and astrologer Lao Dan (老聃), who lived during the reign ofDuke Xian of Qin (r. 384–362 BCE).[23]
Tao Te Ching scholarship has advanced from archaeological discoveries of manuscripts, some of which are older than any of the received texts. Beginning in the 1920s and 1930s,Marc Aurel Stein and others found thousands of scrolls in theMogao Caves nearDunhuang. They included more than 50 partial and complete manuscripts. Another partial manuscript has theXiang'er commentary, which had previously been lost.[25]: 95ff [26]
In 1973, archaeologists discovered copies of early Chinese books, known as theMawangdui Silk Texts, in a tomb dated to 168 BCE.[9] They included two nearly complete copies of the text, referred to as Text A (甲) and Text B (乙), both of which reverse the traditional ordering and put theTe Ching section before theTao Ching, which is why the Henricks translation of them is named "Te-Tao Ching". Based on calligraphic styles and imperialnaming taboo avoidances, scholars believe that Text A can be dated to about the first decade and Text B to about the third decade of the 2nd century BCE.[27]
In 1993, the oldest known version of the text, written onbamboo slips, was found in a tomb near the town of Guodian (郭店) inJingmen, Hubei, and dated prior to 300 BCE.[9] TheGuodian Chu Slips comprise around 800 slips of bamboo with a total of over 13,000 characters, about 2,000 of which correspond with theTao Te Ching.[9]
Both the Mawangdui and Guodian versions are generally consistent with the received texts, excepting differences in chapter sequence and graphic variants. Several recentTao Te Ching translations utilise these two versions, sometimes with the verses reordered to synthesize the new finds.[28]
Although debated more in early scholarship, early modern scholars likeFeng Youlan andHerrlee G. Creel still considered the work a compilation;[29]Gu Jiegang believed it to have been written over three centuries.[30] Most modern scholarship holds the text to be a compilation, as typical for long-form early Chinese texts.[31] Discussing concepts of names and realities, Feng Youlan's early work theorized theschool of names as preceding the work, but it does not demonstrate school of names influence the way theZhuangzi does.[32]
Derived of Sima Qian's perspective in the mid-early Han dynasty, the term Daoist would typically bring Laozi and Zhuangzi to mind. Alongside theHan Feizi, the Tao Te Ching was likely becoming more influential thanShen Buhai and theZhuangzi bySima Qian's time, if they were not already influential going back to the lateWarring States period. Sima Qian discusses them together, but names the chapter "Biographies of Laozi and Han Fei".[33] Though influencing the Han Feizi andHuangdi Sijing,[34]Shen Dao does not appear to have comparable influence toShang Yang and Shen Buhai by the Han dynasty.[35]
Based onShen Dao, academic activity developing some earlier Tao te Ching versions would theoretically emerge in the early-mid Warring States period.[36] But theGuanzi would theoretically have been influential among late Warring States period nobles.[37] Early survey considered theGuanzi most prominent in the recovered DaoisticHuangdi Sijing, which didn't quote the Tao te Ching yet.[38] It is easier to place a subsequent more marked increase in Tao te Ching influence closer to the end of Warring States period, where it is found in the Han Feizi.[39]
Though scholar Pei Wang primarily treats the similarities and differences of Laozi, theHuangdi Sijing andHan Feizi, at least in review with Pei Wang,Yuri PinesDao Companion to China's fa tradition has modernly expressed openness to the "indebtedness" of early Warring States thinkers like Shen Buhai to Laozi.[40]
Linguistic studies of theTao Te Ching's vocabulary andrime scheme point to a date of composition after the earlyClassic of Poetry (or Book of Songs), but before theZhuangzi,[41] and would generally be taken as preceding theZhuangzi.[42] This is the traditional "before Zhuangzi" theory.[43] Although the Book of Songs is a diverse work, they do not bear anyespecial resemblance.[44] Upholding the traditional early dating of Sima Qian, Hong KongSinologist Liu Xiaogan argued that the Tao Te Ching's poetic structure resembles the Book of Songs more than the later,Warring States periodSongs of Chu.[9]
Compared bySima Qian with Laozi, the text would traditionally be taken as precedingShen Buhai. Questioning their chronology, Creel proposed that Shen Buhai may have preceded it as well,[45] but Shen Buhai does bear a "striking" resemblance toLaozi.[46] Although not enough to eliminate a late dating, the discovery of the earlyMawangdui silk texts andGuodian Chu Slips again made a dating before the third-century BCE more probable.[47] Admittedly, the Mawangdui'sHuangdi Sijing itself is considered a late compilation, but it does increase the prominence of Laozi or similar currents late in the Warring States period.[48]
As one suggestion the work is an ancient text, ancient texts are arguably divided in two parts. The Mawangdui versions divide the text in two parts, and one version also didn't have chapters yet.[49] When the Tao te Ching did get chapters, they weren't given titles.[50] Alongside theHuangdi Sijing, late Warring States textsXunzi andHan Feizi are the first to give titles to chapters.[51] As another criticism of late theories for the work, although the earliest recovered versions are from late in the range of possible dating, their language is already "coherent and natural".[52]Benjamin I. Schwartz still considered the Tao Te Ching remarkably unified by the time of the Mawangdui, even if these versions swap the two halves of the text.[53]
Essentially the dating ofA.C. Graham, theStanford Encyclopedia supposes compilation of thecurrent text as dating back to the lateWarring States period circa 250 BCE, drawing on a wide range of versions further dating back a century or two.[8]
Termed the "After Zhuangzi" theory, representative ofCh'ien Mu and Graham, a lack of early references contributes to Graham's late dating. While the Zhuangzi is the firstreference for the Tao Te Ching, its Inner Chapters do not demonstrate familiarity with it. Thus, an early stratum representative of theZhuangzi's core Inner Chapters may have preceded it.[54] As a work which includes discussion of government, theTao te Ching's more governmentally complex ideas ofDao orwu wei could well be expected to come after early ideas of them in the Zhuangzi, which didn't as much involve government.[55] TheAnalects have wu wei as an idea of government, but one of virtue, not a technique of governmental control like theTao te Ching.[56]
Listed in the OuterZhuangzi's history afterMozi but before Laozi and Zhuangzi,Shen Dao shares content with the InnerZhuangzi,[57] and can also be directly compared with the Tao Te Ching.[58] Less technically complex than Shen Buhai, Shen Dao's current might theoretically even precede him,[59] back to the fourth century BCE.[60] Sinologist Chad Hansen does not consider the OuterZhuangzi entirely accurate chronologically, but positioned Shen Dao under "Pre-Laozi Daoist Theory" for the theoretical framework of theStanford Encyclopedia of Daoism's 2024 edition. With Shen Dao being comparable, his time would theoretically form a grounding for its development, ormight have existed by his time, if the Zhuangzi's (and other) indications are not chronologically accurate.[36]
The lateHan Feizi has the work's earliest known commentaries,[61] though it can be argued that it influences theHuangdi Sijing. With a compilation supposed to date back to the late Warring States period, but including earlierShen Dao content, Leo S Changtheorizes potential Laozi influences for the Sijing, with some passages similar to theZhuangzi. But it does not actually quote the Laozi. As Chang notes, there are "no lengthy parallel expressions between" the Sijing and Laozi, arguably baring more resemblance to theGuanzi. The Sijing has similar ideas to Laozi of strategically "assuming feminine conduct", but the ruler switches to an active posture at "the right moment", countervailing against Laozi's passivity. In Laozi, theDao gives birth to the One; in the Sijing, they are the same. Laozi disparages law; the Sijing's law 'derives from Dao'.[62]
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TheTao Te Ching describes the Tao as the source and ideal of all existence: it is unseen, but not transcendent, immensely powerful yet supremely humble, being the root of all things. People have desires and free will (and thus are able to alter their own nature). Many act "unnaturally", upsetting the natural balance of the Tao. TheTao Te Ching intends to lead students to a "return" to their natural state, in harmony with Tao.[63] Language and conventional wisdom are critically assessed. Taoism views them as inherently biased and artificial, widely using paradoxes to sharpen the point.[64]
Wu wei, literally 'non-action' or 'not acting', is a central concept of theTao Te Ching. The concept ofwu wei is multifaceted, and reflected in the words' multiple meanings, even in English translation; it can mean "not doing anything", "not forcing", "not acting" in the theatrical sense, "creating nothingness", "acting spontaneously", and "flowing with the moment".[65]
This concept is used to explainziran, or harmony with the Tao. It includes the concepts that value distinctions are ideological and seeing ambition of all sorts as originating from the same source.Tao Te Ching used the term broadly with simplicity and humility as key virtues, often in contrast to selfish action. On a political level, it means avoiding such circumstances as war, harsh laws and heavy taxes. Some Taoists see a connection betweenwu wei andesoteric practices, such aszuowang ('sitting in oblivion': emptying the mind of bodily awareness and thought) found in theZhuangzi.[64]
TheTao Te Ching is a text of around 5,162 to 5,450Chinese characters in 81 brief chapters or sections (章). There is some evidence that the chapter divisions were later additions—for commentary, or as aids to rote memorisation—and that the original text was more fluidly organised. It has two parts, theTao Ching (道經; chapters 1–37) and theTe Ching (德經; chapters 38–81), which may have been edited together into the received text, possibly reversed from an originalTe Tao Ching.[66]
Contrasting with Confucianism, its general statements are free of narration or reference to "anyparticular persons, times, or places."[67] The written style is laconic, with fewgrammatical particles. While the ideas are singular, the style is poetic, combining two major strategies: short, declarative statements, and intentional contradictions, encouraging varied, contradictory interpretations. The first of these strategies creates memorable phrases, while the second forces the reader to reconcile supposed contradictions.[66] With apartial reconstruction of the pronunciation ofOld Chinese spoken during theTao Te Ching's composition, approximately three-quarters rhymed in the original language.[68]
TheTao Te Ching has been translated into Western languages over 250 times, mostly to English, German, and French.[70] According to Holmes Welch, "It is a famous puzzle which everyone would like to feel he had solved."[71] The first English translation of theTao Te Ching was produced in 1868 by the Scottish Protestant missionaryJohn Chalmers, entitledThe Speculations on Metaphysics, Polity, and Morality of the "Old Philosopher" Lau-tsze.[72] It was heavily indebted[73] toJulien's French translation[12] and dedicated toJames Legge,[4] who later produced his own translation for Oxford'sSacred Books of the East.[5]
Other notable English translations of theTao Te Ching are those produced by Chinese scholars and teachers: a 1948 translation by linguistLin Yutang, a 1961 translation by authorJohn Ching Hsiung Wu, a 1963 translation by sinologistDin Cheuk Lau, another 1963 translation by professorWing-tsit Chan, and a 1972 translation byTaoist teacherGia-Fu Feng together with his wifeJane English.
Many translations are written by people with a foundation in Chinese language and philosophy who are trying to render the original meaning of the text as faithfully as possible into English. Some of the more popular translations are written from a less scholarly perspective, giving an individual author's interpretation. Critics of these versions claim that their translators deviate from the text and are incompatible with the history of Chinese thought.[74] Russell Kirkland goes further to argue that these versions are based on WesternOrientalist fantasies and represent the colonial appropriation of Chinese culture.[75][76] Other Taoism scholars, such as Michael LaFargue[77] and Jonathan Herman,[78] argue that while they do not pretend to scholarship, they meet a real spiritual need in the West. These Westernized versions aim to make the wisdom of the Tao Te Ching more accessible to modern English-speaking readers by, typically, employing more familiar cultural and temporal references.
TheTao Te Ching is written inClassical Chinese, which generally poses a number of challenges for interpreters and translators. As Holmes Welch notes, the written language "has no active or passive, no singular or plural, no case, no person, no tense, no mood."[79] Moreover, the received text lacks manygrammatical particles which are preserved in the olderMawangdui and Beida texts, which permit the text to be more precise.[80] Lastly, many passages of theTao Te Ching are deliberately ambiguous.[81][82]
Since there is very littlepunctuation in Classical Chinese, determining the precise boundaries between words and sentences is not always trivial. Deciding where these phrasal boundaries are must be done by the interpreter.[81] Some translators have argued that the received text is so corrupted due to[citation needed] its original medium beingbamboo strips[83] linked with silk threads—that it is impossible to understand some passages without some transposition of characters.[citation needed]
The works of Lao Tzyy: Truth and nature, popularly known as Daw-der-jing, translated byCheng, Lin, Shanghai, 1949{{citation}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)(Based on rectified and rearranged Chinese text, divide into 180 verses/stanzas)
Duyvendak, J.J.L. (1954),Tao Te Ching: The Book of the Way and Its Virtue, John Murray
Waley, Arthur (1958) [1934],The Way and Its Power, New York: Grove Press
Chan, Wing-tsit (1963),The Way of Lao Tzu: Tao-te ching, Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill
Schwarz, Ernst (1970),Laudse: Daudedsching (in German), Leipzig: Reclam
Houang, François andLeyris, Pierre (1979),La Voie et sa vertu: Tao-tê-king (in French), Paris: Éditions du Seuil
Henricks, Robert G. (1989),Lao-tzu: Te-tao ching. A New Translation Based on the Recently Discovered Ma-wang-tui Texts, New York: Ballantine Books,ISBN0-345-34790-0
^Tao Te Ching, translated byLau, D. C., Penguin, 1963, p. 162,ISBN978-0-14-044131-4,The tentative conclusion we have arrived at concerning Lao Tzu the man is this. There is no certain evidence that he was a historical figure.{{citation}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
^Boltz, William G. (1982), "The Religious and Philosophical Significance of the Hsiang erh Lao tzu 相爾老子 in the Light of the Ma-wang-tui Silk Manuscripts",Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, vol. 45,JSTOR615191
^Henricks, Robert G. (1979). "Examining the Ma-Wang-Tui Silk Texts of theLao-Tzu: With Special Note of Their Differences from the Wang Pi Text".T’oung Pao.65 (4/5): 166–199 at 167.JSTOR4528176.
^Eoyang, Eugene (1990), "Review:Tao Te Ching: A New English Translation by Stephen Mitchell",The Journal of Religion (book review), vol. 70, no. 3, University of Chicago Press, pp. 492–493,doi:10.1086/488454,JSTOR1205252
^LaFargue, Michael (1994).Tao and Method: A reasoned approach to the Tao Te Ching. State University of New York Press.ISBN9781438409863.
^Herman, Jonathan R. (1998), "Reviewed work: Tao te Ching: A Book about the Way and the Power of the Way, Ursula K. Le Guin",Journal of the American Academy of Religion, vol. 66, no. 3, pp. 686–689,doi:10.1093/jaarel/66.3.686,JSTOR1466152
^abRecord, Kirby (March 2022)."On Translating the Dark Enigma: The Tao Te Ching".Translation and Literature.31 (1):52–65.doi:10.3366/tal.2022.0494. Retrieved9 April 2024.The problem of intentional ambiguities in the original work lies at the heart of all poetry translations but is particularly challenging in the case of ideographic texts of antiquity...
Ariel, Yoav; Raz, Gil (2010), "Anaphors or Cataphors? A Discussion of the Two qi 其 Graphs in the First Chapter of theDaodejing",Philosophy East and West,60 (3), University of Hawai'i Press:391–421,doi:10.1353/PEW.0.0108,JSTOR40666591,S2CID170969512
Barlow, Jeffrey G. (1985). Donald H. Bishop (ed.).Chinese Thought: An Introduction. Motilal Banarsidass.ISBN9780836411300.
Boltz, William G. (1993), "Lao tzu Tao-te-ching", inLoewe, Michael (ed.),Early Chinese Texts: A Bibliographical Guide, Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, pp. 269–92,ISBN1-55729-043-1.
Chan, Alan (2013),"Laozi",Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Stanford University.
Chang, Leo S (1998).The Four Political Treatises of the Yellow Emperor: Original Mawangdui Texts with Complete English Translations and an Introduction. Society for Asian and Comparative Philosophy. Monograph No.15.University of Hawaiʻi Press.
Cole, Alan (August 2006), "Simplicity for the Sophisticated: Rereading the Daode Jing for the Polemics of Ease and Innocence",History of Religions,46 (1), University of Chicago Press:1–49,doi:10.1086/507927,JSTOR10.1086/507927,S2CID170162034
Damascene, Hieromonk; Lou, Shibai; Tang, You-Shan (1999),Christ the Eternal Tao, Platina, CA: Saint Herman Press
Eliade, Mircea (1984),A History of Religious Ideas, vol. 2: From Gautama Buddha to the Triumph of Christianity, translated by Trask, Willard R., University of Chicago Press,ISBN978-0-226-20403-1
Emerson, John (2013).Shen Dao: Text, Translation, and Study. Éditions Le Real.OCLC911414271.
