Archaeological evidence from Tamil Nadu indicates a continuous history of human occupation for more than 3,800 years. In the Sangam period,Tamilakam was ruled by theThree Crowned Kings of theCheras,Cholas andPandyas. SmallerVelir kings and chieftains ruled certain territories and maintained relationship with the larger kingdoms. Urbanisation and mercantile activity developed along the coasts during the later Sangam period with the Tamilsinfluencing the regional trade in the Indian Ocean region. Artifacts obtained from excavations indicate the presence of earlytrade relations with the Romans. The major kingdoms to rule the region later were thePallavas (3rd–9th century CE), and theVijayanagara Empire (14th–17th century CE).
The island of Sri Lanka often saw attacks from the Indian mainland with the Cholas establishing their influence across the island and across several areas in Southeast Asia in the 10th century CE. This led to the spread of Tamil influence and contributed to thecultural Indianisation of the region. Scripts brought by Tamil traders like theGrantha andPallava scripts, induced the development of many Southeast Asian scripts. TheJaffna Kingdom later controlled the Tamil territory in the north of the Sri Lanka from 13th to 17th century CE. European colonization began in the 17th century CE, and continued for two centuries until the middle of the 20th century.
Tamil is derived from the name of thelanguage.[11] The people are referred to asTamiḻar in Tamil language, which is etymologically linked to the name of the language.[12] Theorigin and precise etymology of the word Tamil is unclear with multiple theories attested to it.[13]Kamil Zvelebil suggests that the termtamiz might have been derived fromtam meaning "self" and "-iz" having the connotation of "unfolding sound". Alternatively, he suggests a derivation oftamiz <tam-iz <*tav-iz <*tak-iz, meaning "the proper process (of speaking)".[14]Franklin Southworth suggests that the name comes fromtam-miz >tam-iz meaning "self-speak", or "our own speech".[15]
It is unknown whether the termTamila and its equivalents inPrakrit such asDamela,Damila, orTamira was first used as a self designation or by outsiders. TheHathigumpha inscription fromUdayagiri inEastern India dated to the second century BCE,[16][17] describes aT[r]amira samghata (Confederacy of Tamil rulers), which was in existence for the previous 113 years.[18] Epigraphical evidence from the second century BCE mentioningDamela orDameda fromancient Sri Lanka have been found.[19] In theBuddhistJataka texts, there is a mention of aDamila-rattha (Tamil dynasty).[20][21]Greek historianStrabo (first century BCE) mentions that theRoman EmperorAugustus received an ambassador fromPandyan of Dramira.[22] An inscription fromAmaravati dated to third century CE refers to aDhamila-vaniya (Tamil trader).[23]
Archaeological evidence points to the region being first inhabited by hominids more than 400 millennia ago.[24][25] Artifacts recovered inAdichanallur by theArchaeological Survey of India (ASI) indicatemegalithic urn burials, dating from back to 1500 BCE.,[26][27][28] which are also described in early Tamil literature.[29]Neolithiccelts with theIndus script dated between 15th and 20th century BCE indicate the use of earlyHarappan language.[30][31] Excavations atKeezhadi have revealed a large urban settlement, with the earliest artefact dated to 580 BCE, during the time of urbanization in theIndo-Gangetic plain.[32] Further epigraphical inscriptions found at Adichanallur useTamil Brahmi, a rudimentary script dated to 5th century BCE.[33] Potsherds uncovered from Keeladi indicate a script which might be a transition between the Indus Valley script and Tamil Brahmi script used later.[34]
TheSangam period lasted from 3rd century BCE to 3rd century CE with the main source of history during the period coming from the variousSangam literature.[35][36] AncientTamilakam was ruled by atriumvirate of monarchical states,Cheras,Cholas andPandyas.[37] These kings are referred to asVāṉpukaḻ Mūvar (Three glorified by heaven) in the Sangam literature.[38] The Cheras controlled the western part of Tamilkam, the Pandyas controlled the south, and the Cholas had their base in theKaveri delta.[39][40] They are mentioned in the inscriptions from theMauryan Empire dated to third century BCE.[41]Kalinga inscriptions from the second century BCE refers to a confederacy of the Tamil kingdoms.[42] The three kings calledVendhar ruled over several hill tribes headed by theVelir chiefs and settlements headed by clan chiefs calledKizhar.[43] The rulers of smaller territories were referred to asKurunilamannar, withPurananuru mentioning the names of many such chieftains.[44]
Potsherds and megalithic sarcophagus
The Sangam period rulers patronized multiple religions includingvedic religion,Buddhism andJainism and sponsored some of the earliest Tamil literature with the oldest surviving work beingTolkāppiyam, a book of Tamil grammar.[45]Purananuru describes the public life and various unique cultural practices that existed during the period. The text talks about theVedic Sacrifices performed by the kings as described in theVedas and the rituals performed for the dead.[46][47]
Agriculture was an important occupation during the period, and there is evidence that networks ofirrigation channels were built as early as the 3rd century BCE. The Sangam literature describe fertile lands and people organised into various occupational groups. The governance of the land was through hereditary monarchies, although the sphere of the state's activities and the extent of the ruler's powers were limited through the adherence to an established order.[48][49]
The kingdoms had significant diplomatic and trade contacts with other kingdoms to the north and with theRomans.Roman coins and other epigraphical evidence from South India andpotsherds with Tamil writing found in excavations along theRed Sea indicate the presence ofRoman commerce with the ancient Tamilakam.[50][51] Much of the commerce from the Romans andHan China were facilitated via seaports includingMuziris andKorkai withspices being the most prized goods along withpearls andsilk.[52][53] There is evidence of emissaries sent to the Roman Emperor Augustus by the Pandya kings.[22] An anonymous Greek traveler's account from first century CE,Periplus Maris Erytraei, describes the ports of the Pandya and Chera kingdoms inDamirica and their commercial activity in detail. It also describes that the chief exports of the ancient Tamils werepepper,malabathrum,pearls,ivory, silk,spikenard,diamonds,sapphires, andtortoiseshell.[54]
From the fourth century CE, the region was ruled by theKalabhras, warriors belonging to theVellalar community, who were once feudatories of the three ancient Tamil kingdoms.[55] The Kalabhra era is referred to as the "dark period" of Tamil history, and information about it is generally inferred from any mentions in the literature and inscriptions that are dated many centuries after their era ended.[56] Around the seventh century CE, the Kalabhras were overthrown by the Pandyas and Cholas.[57][58] Though they existed previously, the period saw the rise of thePallavas in the sixth century CE underMahendravarman I, who ruled parts ofSouth India withKanchipuram as their capital.[59] The Pallavas were noted for their patronage of architecture.[60] Throughout their reign, the Pallavas remained in constant conflict with the Cholas, the Pandyas and other kingdoms ofChalukyas of Badami and theRashtrakutas.[61] The Pandyas were revived byKadungon towards the end of the sixth century CE and with the Cholas in obscurity inUraiyur, the Tamil country was divided between the Pallavas and the Pandyas.[62] The area west of theWestern Ghats became increasingly distinct from the eastern parts.[63] A new languageMalayalam evolved from Tamil in the region and the socio-cultural transformation was altered further by the migration ofSanskrit-speakingIndo-Aryans from Northern India in the eighth century CE.[64][65]
The Cholas were revived in the ninth century CE byVijayalaya Chola and the last Pallavas rulerAparajitavarman was defeated by the Chola princeAditya I.[66] After the defeat of the Pallavas, the Cholas became the dominant kingdom with the capital atThanjavur. The Chola influence expanded subsequently withRajaraja I conquering the entire Southern India and parts of present-daySri Lanka andMaldives, and increased Chola influence across theIndian Ocean in the eleventh century CE.[67][68] Rajaraja brought in administrative reforms including the reorganisation of Tamil country into individual administrative units.[69] Under his sonRajendra Chola I, the Chola empire reached its zenith and stretched as far asBengal in the north and across the Indian Ocean.[70] He defeated theEastern Chalukyas and theChola navyinvaded theSrivijaya Empire in South East Asia.[71] The Cholas had trade links with the ChineseSong Dynasty and across Southeast Asia.[72][73] The Cholas built many temples with the most notable being theBrihadisvara Temple at Thanjavur.[74] The latter half of the eleventh century saw the union of Chola andVengi kingdoms underKulottunga I.[75] The Cholas repulsed attacks from theWestern Chalukyas and maintained its influence over the various kingdoms of Southeast Asia.[76][77] According to historianNilakanta Sastri, Kulottunga avoided unnecessary wars and had a long and prosperous reign characterized by unparalleled success that laid the foundations of the empire for the next 150 years.[78]
The eventual decline of Chola power began towards the end ofKulottunga III's reign in the thirteenth century CE.[71] The Pandyas again reigned supreme underMaravarman Sundara I and defeated the Cholas underRajaraja III.[79] Though the Cholas were revived briefly with the aid ofHoysalas, civil war between Rajaraja andRajendra III weakened them further.[80] With the Hoysalas later siding with the Pandyas, the Pandyas consolidated control over the region.[81] The Pandya empire reached its zenith in the thirteenth century CE underJatavarman Sundara Pandyan I after he defeated the Hoysalas, theKakatiyas and captured parts of Sri Lanka. The Pandyas ruled from their capital ofMadurai and expanded trade links with other maritime empires.[82]Venetian explorerMarco Polo mentioned the Pandyas as the richest empire in existence.[83] The Pandyas also built a number of temples including theMeenakshi Amman Temple at Madurai.[84] In the fourteenth century CE, the Pandyan empire was engulfed in a civil war and also faced repeated invasions by theDelhi Sultanate.[85] In 1335, the Pandyan capital was conquered byJalaluddin Ahsan Khan and the short-livedMadurai Sultanate was established.[86][87]
Vijayanagar and Nayak period (14th–17th century CE)
TheVijayanagara kingdom was founded in 1336 CE.[88] The Vijayanagara empire eventually conquered the entire Tamil country byc. 1370 and ruled for almost two centuries.[89] In the sixteenth century, Vijaynagara kingKrishnadeva Raya was forced to intervene in the conflict between their vassals, the Cholas and the Pandyas.[90][91] TheNayak governor under Raya briefly took control of Madurai before it was restored to the empire.[92] The Vijayanagara empire was defeated in theBattle of Talikota in 1565 by a confederacy ofDeccan sultanates.[93] The Nayaks, who were the military governors in the Vijaynagara empire, took control of the region amongst whom theNayaks of Madurai andNayaks of Thanjavur were the most prominent.[94][95][96] They introduced thepalayakkararar system and re-constructed some of the temples in Tamil Nadu including the Meenakshi Temple in Madurai.[97]
Later conflicts and European colonization (17th to 20th century CE)
After theIndependence of India in 1947, the Madras Presidency becameMadras state, comprising present-day Tamil Nadu and parts ofAndhra Pradesh,Karnataka andKerala. The state was further re-organised as a state for Tamils when the boundaries were redrawn linguistically in1956 into the current shape.[127][128] On 14 January 1969, Madras state was renamed Tamil Nadu, meaning "Tamil country".[129][130] In 1965, Tamilsagitated against theimposition of Hindi and in support of continuing English as a medium of communication which eventually led to English being retained as an official language of India alongside Hindi.[131] After experiencing fluctuations in the decades immediately after Indian independence, theHuman Development Index of the Tamils have consistently improved due toreform-oriented economic policies and in the 2000s, the region has become one of the most urbanized states in the country.[132][133]
A megalithic burial jar from north-western Sri Lanka, 5th-2nd century BCE, similar to the ones found inSouth India.[134]
There are various theories from scholars over the presence of Tamil people in Sri Lanka. HistorianK. Indrapala states that Tamil replaced a previous language of an indigenous mesolithic population, who later became the Eelam Tamils and the cultural diffusion happened well before the arrival ofSinhalese people in Sri Lanka.[135] Eelam Tamils consider themselves lineal descendants of the aboriginalNaga andYaksha people of Sri Lanka. Acobra totem known asNakam in the Tamil language is still part of the Tamil tradition in Sri Lanka.[136] Remains of settlements and megalithic burial sites of people culturally similar to those of present-day Sri Lanka and Tamil Nadu in modern India have been excavated at Pomparippu on the west coast and inKathiraveli on the east coast of the island. These epigraphical evidence have been dated to a period between fifth century BCE and second century CE.[137][138] Cultural similarities in burial practices in South India and Sri Lanka were dated by archeologists to the beginning of theIron Age in the region around twelfth century BCE. There were specific migration routes that extended from South India to the island. These people moved further to the South of the island, and intermingled with the existent people.[139]
Anuradhapura period (4th century BCE to 10th century CE)
Black and red ware potsherds found in Sri Lanka from the early reign ofAnuradhapura kingdom, indicate a similar cultural connection with the people of South India.[140] TheTamil Brahmi inscriptions on them indicate Tamil clan names such asParumakal,Ay,Vel,Utiyan,Ticaiyan,Cuda andNaka, which points to the presence of Tamils in the region.[141] Excavations inPoonakari in the north of the island have yielded several inscriptions including the mention ofvela, a name related tovelirs of the ancient Tamil country.[142] Epigraphical evidence of people identified as Damelas (the Prakrit word for Tamil people) from the second century CE have been found inAnuradhapura, the capital city of the northernRajarata region.[143]
Historical records mention that the three Tamil kingdoms were involved in the island's affairs from second century BCE.[144][145] Chola kingEllalan captured the Anuradhapura Kingdom from 205 BCE to 161 BCE.[146] Tamil soldiers from Tamilakam came to Anuradhapura in large numbers in the seventh century CE with the local chiefs and kings relying on them.[147] In the eighth century CE, various Tamil villages collectively known asDemel-kaballa (Tamil allotment),Demelat-valademin (Tamil villages), andDemel-gam-bim (Tamil villages and lands) were established.[148] In the ninth and tenth centuries CE, Pandya and Chola incursions started in the island which culminated with the Chola annexation of the island.[147]
Polonnaruwa and Jaffna kingdom (11th–15th century CE)
The Chola influence lasted until the latter half of the eleventh century CE and the Chola decline was followed by the restoration of thePolonnaruwa monarchy.[147][149] In 1215, following Pandya invasions, the Tamil-dominantAryacakravarti dynasty established theJaffna Kingdom on theJaffna peninsula and in parts of northern Sri Lanka.[150] In the fourteenth century CE, the Aryacakaravarthi expansion into the south of the island was halted byAlagakkonara, who belonged to a feudal family from Kanchipuram that migrated to Sri Lanka in the previous century and converted to Buddhism.[151] He served as the chief minister of the Sinhalese kingParakramabahu V (1344–59 CE) and his descendant Vira Alakeshwara briefly became the king later before theMing admiralZheng He overthrew him in 1409 CE after which the influence of his family declined.[152] Thecaste structure of the Sinhalese also accommodated Hindu immigrants from South India, which led to the emergence of new Sinhalese caste groups such as theRadala, theSalagama, theDurava and theKarava.[153][154]
Later conflicts and European colonization (16th–20th century CE)
The Aryachakaravarthi dynasty continued to rule over large parts of northeast Sri Lanka until arrival of the Europeans on the island in the sixteenth century CE. Portuguese traders reached Sri Lanka by 1505 CE and the Jaffna kingdom came to the attention of Portuguese due to its presence as a logistical and strategic base for accessing the interior ruled by theKandyan kingdom.[155] KingCankili I resisted contacts with the Portuguese and repelledParavaCatholics who were brought from India to theMannar Island to take over the lucrative pearl fisheries from the Jaffna kings.[156][157] The wrested Mannar during thefirst invasion in 1560 and killed kingPuvirasa Pandaram during thesecond expedition in 1591.[158] After the conflicts, the Portuguesesecured the kingdom in 1619 from the unpopularCankili II, who was helped by the Thanjavur Nayaks.[159][160] English sailorRobert Knox arrived in the island in 1669 and described the Tamil settlements in theAn Historical Relation of the Island Ceylon published in 1681.[161]
TheDutch captured the island later and ruled for more than a century. Following the1795 invasion of the British and theKandyan Wars, the island came to the control of the British in the early nineteenth century CE.[162] Upon arrival in June 1799,Hugh Cleghorn, the island's first British colonial secretary, wrote to the British government: "Two different nations from a very ancient period have divided between them the possession of the island. First the Sinhalese, inhabiting the interior in its Southern and Western parts, and secondly the Tamils who possess the Northern and Eastern districts. These two nations differ entirely in their religion, language, and manners."[163] Irrespective of the ethnic differences, the British imposed a unitary state structure inBritish Ceylon for better administration.[164] During the British colonial rule, Tamils held higher positions in the government and were favoured by the British for their qualification in English education. In the northern highlands, the lands of the Sinhalese were seized by the British andIndian Tamils were settled there as plantation workers.[165] Tamils who migrated in the nineteenth century CE to work on tea plantations were later termed as theIndian Tamils.[166]
The northern and eastern areas of Sri Lanka with majority Tamil population.
Sri Lanka gained independence in 1948 and after the colonial rule ended, ethnic tension rose between the Sinhalese, who constituted a majority, and the Tamils.[167] In 1956, theSinhala Only Act designatedSinhala as the only official language of Sri Lanka, which forced many Tamils to resign as civil servants because they were not fluent in the language. The Tamils saw the act as linguistic, cultural and economic discrimination against them.[140] Anti-Tamilpogroms in1956 and1958 resulted in deaths of many Tamils and further escalated the conflict.[168][169][170] More than a million Indian Tamil plantation workers were made stateless after Sri Lanka refused citizenship to them. In 1964, theSri Lankan andIndian governments entered into an agreement, based on which, about 300,000 would be granted Sri Lankan citizenship and about 975,000 Tamils would berepatriated to India over a period of fifteen years.[167][171]
A newConstitution enacted in the 1970s further discriminated against the Tamils and various state-sponsored schemes led Sinhalese settlers into Tamil populated areas. The1977 anti-Tamil pogrom was followed by a crackdown against the Tamils, which curtailed their rights. Following the declaration of state of emergency in 1981, state-backed Sinhalese mobs turned on Tamils, which led many Tamils to leave the country as refugees resulting in an exodus more than half a million to India and other countries.[167] By the 1970s, initial non-violent political struggle for anindependent Tamil state in thenorth andeast of Sri Lanka, developed into a violent secessionist insurgency.[172][173] This led to the bloodySri Lankan Civil War for more than three decades.[174][175] The conflict resulted in the deaths of at least 100,000 Tamils in the island and led to the flight of over 800,000 refugees.[176][177][178][179] The war ended after theSri Lankan military offensive in 2009.[180] Since the end of the civil war, the Sri Lankan state has been subject to much global criticism for violatinghuman rights as a result of committingwar crimes through bombing civilian targets, usage of heavy weaponry, theabduction andmassacres of Sri Lankan Tamils andsexual violence.[181][182][183][184]
Sri Lankan Tamils, also known as Eelam Tamils, are classified into two ethnicities by theSri Lankan government, namelySri Lankan Tamils, andIndian Origin Tamils who accounted for 11.2%, and 4.1% respectively of the country's population in 2011.[3] The Sri Lankan Tamils (or Ceylon Tamils) are the descendants of the Tamils of the old Jaffna Kingdom and east coast chieftainships calledVannimais. The Indian Tamils (or Hill Country Tamils) are descendants of laborers who migrated from Tamil Nadu to Sri Lanka in the 19th century to work on tea plantations.[166] Most Sri Lankan Tamils live in the Northern and Eastern provinces and aroundColombo, whereas most Indian Tamils live in the central highlands.[186] Historically, both the Tamil ethnic groups have identified themselves as separate communities, although there has been a greater sense of unity since the 1980s.[187]
There also exists a significantTamil Muslim population in Sri Lanka. However, they are listed as a separate entity under theMoors by the government.[188][186] However, genealogical evidence suggests that most of the Sri Lankan Moor community are of Tamil ethnicity, and that the majority of their ancestors were also Tamils who had lived in the country for generations, and had converted to Islam from other faiths.[4][5]
Significant emigration from Indian subcontinent began in the late 18th century, when the Tamils went asindentured labourers and established businesses in other territories under the control of the British empire such asMalaya,Burma,South Africa,Fiji,Mauritius, and theCaribbean.[189] The descendants of these Tamils continued to live in these countries, and practice their original culture, tradition and language. They form significant proportion of the population inMalaysia (7%) andSingapore (5%).[9] A significant population also exists in South Africa, Mauritius, Fiji, as well as other regions such as the Southeast Asia and the Caribbean.[190] However,subsequent generations might not speak the language as amother tongue, but instead as asecond orthird language.[191]
There is a smallTamil community in Pakistan, notably settled since thepartition in 1947.[192] Since the 20th century, Tamils have migrated to other regions such asMiddle East and theWestern World for employment.[190][193][194] A large emigration of Sri Lankan Tamils began in the 1980s, as they sought to escape the ethnic conflict there.[167] The largest concentration of Eelam Tamils outside Sri Lanka is found inCanada.[195]
Tamil literature is of considerable antiquity compared to the contemporary literature from other Indian languages and represents one of the oldest bodies of literature in South Asia.[207][208] The earliest epigraphic records have been dated to around the 3rd century BCE.[209] Early Tamil literature was composed in three successive poetic assemblies known asTamil Sangams, the earliest of which destroyed by floods.[210][211][212] The Sangam literature was broadly classified into three divisions:iyal (poetry),isai (music) andnadagam (drama).[213][214] The early Tamil literature was compiled and classified into two categories:Patinenmelkanakku ("Eighteen Greater Texts") consisting of theEttuttokai ("Eight Anthologies") and thePattuppattu ("Ten Idylls"), and thePatinenkilkanakku ("Eighteen Lesser Texts").[215][216]
According to Tamil literature, there are 64 art forms calledaayakalaigal.[233][234] The art is classified into two broad categories:kavin kalaigal (beautiful art forms) which include architecture, sculpture, painting and poetry andnun kalaigal (fine art forms) which include dance, music and drama.[235]
Dravidian architecture is the distinct style of architecture of the Tamils. The largegopurams, which are monumental ornate towers at the entrance of the temples form a prominent feature ofHindu temples of the Dravidian style.[236][237][238][239] They are topped bykalasams (finials) and function as gateways through the walls that surround the temple complex.[240] There are a number of earlyrock-cut cave-temples established by the various Tamil kingdoms.[241][242][243] TheGroup of Monuments at Mahabalipuram, built by thePallavas in the 7th and 8th centuries has more than forty rock-cut temples, monoliths androck reliefs.[60][244][245] The Pallavas, who built the group of monuments inMahabalipuram andKanchipuram, were one of the earliest patronisers of the Dravidian architectural style.[60][246] These gateways became regular features in theCholas and thePandya architecture, was later expanded by the Vijayanagara and theNayaks and spread to other parts such as Sri Lanka.[247][248][249] There are more than 34,000 temples in Tamil Nadu built across various periods some of which are several centuries old.[250] The influence of Tamil culture had led to the construction of various temples outside India by the Tamil dispora.[251][252] TheMugal influence in medieval times and theBritish influence later gave rise to a blend ofHindu,Islamic andGothic revival styles, resulting in the distinctIndo-Saracenic architecture with several institutions during the British era following the style.[253][254][255] By the early 20th century, theart deco made its entry upon in the urban landscape.[256] In the later part of the century, the architecture witnessed a rise in themodernconcrete buildings.[257][258]
Tamil sculpture ranges from stone sculptures in temples, to detailedbronze icons.[260] The bronze statues of the Cholas are considered to be one of the greatest contributions of Tamil art.[261] Models made of a special mixture ofbeeswax andsal treeresin were encased in clay and fired to melt the wax leaving a hollow mould, which would then be filled with molten metal and cooled to produce bronze statues.[262] Tamil paintings are usually centered around natural, religious or aesthetic themes.[263]Sittanavasal is a rock-cutmonastery and temple attributed to Pandyas and Pallavas which consist offrescoes andmurals from the 7th century CE, painted with vegetable and mineral dyes in over a thin wet surface of lime plaster.[264][265][266] Similar murals are found in temple walls, the most notable examples are the murals on theRanganathaswamy Temple at Srirangam and the Brihadeeswarar temple at Thanjavur.[267][268][269] One of the major forms of Tamil painting isThanjavur painting, which originated in the 16th century CE where a base made of cloth and coated withzinc oxide is painted using dyes and then decorated with semi-precious stones, as well as silver or gold threads.[270][271]
The ancient Tamil country had its ownsystem of music calledTamil Pannisai.[272] Sangam literature such as theSilappatikaram from 2nd century CE describes music notes and instruments.[273][274] A Pallava inscription dated to the 7th century CE has one of the earliest surviving examples of Indian music in notation.[275][276] The Pallava inscriptions from the period describe the playing ofstring instrumentveena as a form of exercise for the fingers and the practice of singing musical hymns (Thirupadigam) in temples. From the 9th century CE, Shaivite hymnsThevaram and Vaishnavite hymns (Tiruvaymoli) were sung along with playing of musical instruments.Carnatic music originated later which included rhythmic and structured music by composers suchThyagaraja,Muthuswami Dikshitar, andShyama Shastri.[277][278]Villu Paatu is an ancient form of musical story-telling method where narration is interspersed with music played from a string bow and accompanying instruments.[279][280]Gaana, a combination of various folk musics is sung mainly in Chennai.[281]
Koothu is a form of street theater that consists of a play performance which consists of dance along with music, narration and singing.[314][315]Bommalattam is a type ofpuppetry that uses variousdoll marionettes manipulated by rods and strings attached to them.[316][317][318]
Silambattam is amartial dance using asilambam, a long staff of about 168 cm (66 in) in length, often made of wood such as bamboo.[319][320] It was used for self-defense and to ward off animals and later evolved into a martial art and dance form.[321]Adimurai (or Kuttu varisai) is a martial art specializing in empty-hand techniques and application on vital points of the body.[322][323][324]Varma kalai is a Tamil traditional art of vital points which combines alternative medicine and martial arts, attributed to sageAgastiyar and might form part of the training of other martial arts such as silambattam, adimurai orkalari.[325]Malyutham is the traditional form of combat-wrestling.[322][326]
Tamil martial arts uses various types of weapons such asvalari (iron sickle),maduvu (deer horns),vaal (sword) andkedayam (shield),surul vaal (curling blade),itti orvel (spear),savuku (whip),kattari (fist blade),aruval (mchete), silambam (bamboo staff),kuttu katai (spiked knuckleduster),kathi (dagger),vil ambu (bow and arrow),tantayutam (mace),soolam (trident),valari (boomerang),chakaram (discus) and theepandam (flaming baton).[327][328]Wootz steel used to make weapons, originated in the mid-1st millennium BCE in South India.[329][330][331][332] Locals in Sri Lanka adopted the production methods of creating wootz steel from the Cheras and the later trade introduced it to other parts of the world.[333][334] Since the early Sangam age, war was regarded as an honourable sacrifice and fallen heroes and kings were worshipped withhero stones and heroicmartyrdom was glorified in ancient Tamil literature.[335] Defeated kings committedVatakkiruttal, a form of ritual suicide.[336]
The Tamil film industry nicknamed asKollywood and is one of the largest industries of film production in India.[337][338] Independent Tamil film production have also originated outside India in Sri Lanka, Singapore, Canada, and western Europe.[339] The concept of "Tent Cinema" was introduced in the early 1900s, in which a tent was erected on a stretch of open land close to a town or village to screen the films.[340][341][342] The first silent film in South India was produced in Tamil in 1916 and the first Tamil talkie film wasKalidas, which released on 31 October 1931, barely seven months after the release of India's first talking pictureAlam Ara.[343][344]
Ancient literature and epigraphical records describe the various types of dresses worn by Tamil people.[346][347] Tamil women traditionally wear asari, a garment that consists of a drape varying from 4.6 m (15 ft) to 8.2 m (27 ft) in length and 0.61 m (2 ft) to 1.2 m (4 ft) in breadth that is typically wrapped around the waist, with one end draped over the shoulder, baring the midriff.[348][349][350] Women wear colourfulsilk sarees on traditional occasions.[351][352] Young girls wear a long skirt calledpavaadai along with a shorter length sari calleddhavani.[347] The men wear adhoti, a 1.9 m (6 ft 3 in) long, white rectangular piece of non-stitched cloth often bordered in brightly coloured stripes which is usually wrapped around the waist and the legs and knotted at the waist.[347][350][353] A colourfullungi with typicalbatik patterns is the most common form of male attire in the countryside.[347][354] People in urban areas generally wear tailored clothing, and western dress is popular. Western-style school uniforms are worn by both boys and girls in schools, even in rural areas.[354]
The Tamil calendar is asiderealsolar calendar.[355] TheTamilPanchangam is based on the same and is generally used in contemporary times to check auspicious times for cultural and religious events.[356] The calendar follows a 60-year cycle.[357] There are 12 months in a year starting withChithirai when theSun enters the firstRāśi and the number of days in a month varies between 29 and 32.[358] The new year starts following theMarch equinox in the middle of April.[359] The days of week (kiḻamai) in the Tamil calendar relate to the celestial bodies in the solar system:Sun,Moon,Mars,Mercury,Jupiter,Venus, andSaturn, in that order.[360]
Hospitality is a major feature of Tamil culture.[361] It was considered as a social obligation and offering food to guests was regarded as one of the highest virtues.[362][363]Rice is the diet staple and is served withsambar,rasam, andporiyal as a part of a Tamil meal.[364][365]Bananas find mention in the Sangam literature and the traditional way of eating a meal involves having the food served on abanana leaf, which is discarded after the meal. Eating on banana leaves imparts a unique flavor to the food, and is considered healthy.[366][367][368] Food is usually eaten seated on the floor and the finger tips of the right hand is used to take the food to the mouth.[369]
There are regional sub-varieties namely Chettinadu, Kongunadu, Nanjilnadu, Pandiyanadu and Sri Lankan Tamil cuisines.[370][371] There are both vegetarian and meat dishes withfish traditionally consumed across the coast and other meat preferred in the interiors. The Chettinadu cuisine is popular for its meat based dishes and generous usage ofspices.[372] The Kongunadu cuisine uses less spices and are generally cooked fresh. It usescoconut,sesame seeds,groundnut, andturmeric to go with various cereals and pulses grown in the region.[372][373] Nanjilnadu cuisine is milder and is usually based on fish and vegetables.[372] Sri Lankan Tamil cuisine usesgingelly oil andjaggery along with coconut and spices, which differentiates it from the other culinary traditions in the island.[371]Biryani is a popular dish with several different versions prepared across various regions.[373]Idli, anddosa are popular breakfast dishes and other dishes cooked by to the Tamil people includeupma,[374]idiappam,[375]pongal,[376]paniyaram,[377] andparotta.[378]
Siddha medicine is a form oftraditional medicine originating from the Tamils and is one of the oldest systems of medicine in India.[379] The word literally means perfection in Tamil and the system focuses on wholesome treatment based on various factors. As per Tamil tradition, the knowledge of Siddha medicine came fromShiva, which was passed on to 18 holy men known asSiddhar led byAgastya. The knowledge was then passed on orally and through palm leaf manuscripts to the later generations.[380] Siddha practitioners believe that all objects including the human body is composed of five basic elements – earth, water, fire, air, sky which are present in food and other compounds, which is used as the basis for the drugs and other therapies.[381]
Tamils decorate their homes with colorfulKolams.[382]
Jallikattu is a traditional event held during the period attracting huge crowds in which a bull is released into a crowd of people, and multiple human participants attempt to grab the large hump on the bull's back with both arms and hang on to it while the bull attempts to escape.[398][399] It has been practised since Sangam period with the aim of keeping people fit. Proficiency in the sport was considered a virtue while untamable bulls were held as a pride of the owner.[400][401]Kabaddi is a traditional contact sport that originated from the Tamils.[402][403]Chess is a popularboard game which originated asSathurangam in the 7th century CE.[404]Traditional games likePallanguzhi,[405]Uriyadi,[406]Gillidanda,[407]Dhaayam are played across the region.[408] In modern times,Cricket is the most popular sport.[409]
As per the Sangam literature, theSangam landscape was classified into five categories known asthinais, which were associated with aHindu deity:Murugan inkurinji (hills),Thirumal inmullai (forests),Indiran inmarutham (plains),Varunan in theneithal (coasts) andKotravai inpalai (desert).[410] Thirumal is indicated as a deity during the Sangam era, who was regarded asParamporul ("the suprement one") and is also known as Māyavan, Māmiyon, Netiyōn, and Māl in various Sangam literature.[411][412] WhileShiva worship existed in the Shaivite culture as a part of the Tamil pantheon,Murugan became regarded as theTamil kadavul ("God of the Tamils").[413][414][415] In Tamil tradition, Murugan is the youngest son of Shiva andParvati andPillayar is regarded as the eldest son, who is venerated as theMudanmudar kadavul ("foremost god").[416]
The cult of themother goddess is treated as an indication of a society which venerated femininity. The worship ofAmman, also calledMariamman, is thought to have been derived from an ancientmother goddess, and is also very common.[417][418][419]Kannagi, the heroine of theCilappatikaram is worshipped as agoddess by many Tamils, particularly in Sri Lanka.[420] In the Sangam literature, there is a description of the rites performed by the priestesses in temples.[421] Among the ancient Tamils, the practice of erecting memorial stones (natukal) was prevalent and it continued till theMiddle ages.[422] It was customary for people who sought victory in war to worship thesehero stones to bless them with victory.[423] In rural areas, local deities calledAiyyan̲ār (also known as Karuppan, Karrupasami,Muniandi), are worshipped who are thought to protect the villages from harm.[417][424][425] Their worship probably emanated from the hero stone worship and appears to be the surviving remnants of an ancient Tamil tradition.[426]Idol worship forms a part of the Tamil Hindu culture similar to the Hindu traditions.[427][428]
The Christian apostle,St. Thomas, is believed to have preachedChristianity to the Tamils between 52 and 70 CE.[437]Rowthers were Tamils who were converted toIslam by the Turkish preacherNathar Shah in the tenth century CE and follow theHanafi school.[438][439][440][441] Other Muslim clans such asMarakkayar,Labbai, andKayalar originated as a result of the trade with theArab world.[442][443][444] Majority of theTamil Muslims speak Tamil rather thanUrdu, which is spoken by Muslims in other parts of the Indian subcontinent.[445][446][447] Mercantile groups introducedCholapauttam, a syncretic form of Buddhism and Shaivism in northern Sri Lanka and Southern India. The religion lost its importance in the 14th century when conditions changed for the benefit ofSinhala andPali traditions.[448]
As of the 21st century, majority of the Tamils are adherents of Hinduism.[449] The migration of Tamils to other countries resulted in new Hindu temples being constructed in places with significant population of Tamil people and people of Tamil origin, and countries with significant Tamil migrants.[450] Sri Lankan Tamils predominantly worship Murugan with numerous temples existing throughout the island.[451][452] There are also followers ofAyyavazhi in Tamil Nadu, mainly in the southern districts.[453]Atheist,rationalist, andhumanist philosophies are also adhered by sizeable minorities, as a result of Tamil cultural revivalism in the 20th century, and its antipathy to what it saw as Brahminical Hinduism.[454]
^Tamils in Sri Lanka are classified into three ethnicities by theSri Lankan government, namelySri Lankan Tamils,Indian Origin Tamils andSri Lankan Moors who accounted for 11.2%, 4.1% and 9.3% respectively of the country's population in 2011.[3] Indian Origin Tamils were separately classified from the 1911 census onwards and the Sri Lankan government lists a substantial Tamil-speaking Muslim population under the distinct ethnicity of Moors. However, genealogical evidence suggests that most of the Sri Lankan Moor community are of Tamil ethnicity, and that the majority of their ancestors were also Tamils who had lived in the country for generations, and had converted to Islam from other faiths.[4][5]
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^"The Edicts of King Ashoka".Colorado State University.Archived from the original on 11 May 2011. Retrieved1 November 2023.Everywhere within Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi's domain, and among the people beyond the borders, the Cholas, the Pandyas, theSatyaputras, the Keralaputras, as far as Tamraparni
^"Hathigumpha Inscription".Epigraphia Indica, Vol. XX (1929–1930). Delhi, 1933, pp. 86–89. Missouri Southern State University. Archived fromthe original on 17 November 2006. Retrieved15 November 2006.
^P.J. Cherian (ed.).Perspectives on Kerala History. Kerala Council for Historical Research. Archived fromthe original on 26 August 2006. Retrieved15 November 2006.There were three levels of redistribution corresponding to the three categories of chieftains, namely: the Ventar, Velir and Kilar in descending order. Ventar were the chieftains of the three major lineages, viz Cera, Cola and Pandya. Velir were mostly hill chieftains, while Kilar were the headmen of settlements ...
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^Beteille, Andre (1964). "89. A Note on the Pongal Festival in a Tanjore Village".Man.64 (2). Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland:73–75.doi:10.2307/2797924.ISSN0025-1496.JSTOR2797924.
^Li, Ming; MacIntosh, Eric W.; Bravo, Gonzalo A. (2012).International Sport Management. Ming Li, Eric W. MacIntosh, Gonzalo A. Bravo. p. 106.ISBN978-0-736-08273-0.
^Murray, H. J. R. (1913).A History of Chess. Benjamin Press.ISBN978-0-93631-701-4.Chathuranga, four-handed dice chess
^Finkel, Irving (2004). "Round and Round the Houses: The Game ofPachisi". In Mackenzie, Colin; Finkel, Irving (eds.).Asian Games: The Art of Contest. Asia Society. pp. 46–57.ISBN978-0-878-48099-9.
^Padmaja, T. (2002).Temples of Kr̥ṣṇa in South India: History, Art, and Traditions in Tamilnāḍu. Abhinav Publications. p. 27.ISBN978-81-7017-398-4.
^Clothey, Fred W. (2019).The Many Faces of Murukan: The History and Meaning of a South Indian God. With the Poem Prayers to Lord Murukan.Walter de Gruyter. p. 34.ISBN978-3-11080-410-2.
^Shafique Ali Khan (1985).Two Nation Theory: As a Concept, Strategy and Ideology. Royal Book Company. p. 70. Retrieved15 September 2013.Nathar Wali (died in 1039) is supposed to be the earliest Muslim Sufi who dedicated his life to Islam in the south
^Jain, Dhanesh (2003). "Sociolinguistics of the Indo-Aryan languages". In Cardona, George; Jain, Dhanesh (eds.).The Indo-Aryan Languages. Routledge language family series. London:Routledge. p. 57.ISBN0-70071-130-9.
^Manguin, Pierre-Yves; Mani, A.; Wade, Geoff (2011).Early Interactions Between South and Southeast Asia: Reflections on Cross-cultural Exchange. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. p. 138.ISBN978-9-81434-510-1.
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