Tamil culture refers to the culture of theTamil people. The Tamils speak theTamil language, one of the oldest languages in India with more than two thousand years ofwritten history.

Archaeological evidence from theTamilakam region indicates a continuous history of human occupation for more than 3,800 years. Historically, the region was inhabited by Tamil-speakingDravidian people. It was ruled by various kingdoms such as theSangam period (3rd century BCE to 3rd century CE)triumvirate of theCheras,Cholas andPandyas, thePallavas (3rd–9th century CE), and the laterVijayanagara Empire (14th–17th century CE).European colonization began in the 17th century CE, and continued for two centuries until theIndian Independence in 1947. Due to its long history, the culture has seen multiple influences over the years and have developed diversely.

The Tamils had outside contact in the form of diplomatic and trade relations with other kingdoms to the north and with theRomans since the Sangam era. The conquests of Tamil kings in the 10th century CE resulted in Tamil culture spreading toSouth andSoutheast Asia. Tamils form the majority in theSouth Indian state ofTamil Nadu and a significant portion of northernSri Lanka. Tamils have migrated world-wide since the 19th century CE and a significant population exists in Sri Lanka,South Africa,Mauritius,Reunion Island,Fiji, as well as other regions such as the Southeast Asia,Middle East,Caribbean and parts of theWestern World.

Tamilakam was the region inhabited by the ancientTamil people.^[1] While archaeological evidence points tohominids inhabiting the region nearly 400 millennia ago, it has been inhabited by modern humans continuously for more than 3,800 years.^[2][3][4] Excavations atKeezhadi have revealed urban settlements dating to the 6th century BCE.^[5] TheTamilakam region has been ruled over by many kingdoms, major of which are theSangam era (3rd century BCE to 3rd century CE) rulers of theChera,Chola, andPandya clans,^[6][1] thePallavas (3rd–9th century CE),^[7] and the laterVijayanagara Empire (14th–17th century CE).^[8] The kingdoms had significant diplomatic and trade contacts with other kingdoms to the north and with theRomans.^[9][10] In the 11th century CE, the Chola empire expanded with the conquests of parts of present-daySri Lanka andMaldives, and increased influence across theIndian Ocean with contacts inSoutheast Asia.^[11][12] This resulted in Tamil influence spreading to the regions.^[13]

Before mid 20th century, the regions populated by Tamils were underEuropean colonization for more than two centuries.^[14] During the European occupation, Tamils migrated and settled in various regions across the globe.^[15][16] This resulted in significantTamil population inSoutheast Asia,Caribbean,South Africa,Mauritius,Seychelles andFiji.^[17] Since the 20th century, Tamils have migrated to other regions such asMiddle East and theWestern World for employment.^[18][19][17] Tamils form the majority in theSouth Indian state ofTamil Nadu and in northern and eastern provinces of Sri Lanka.^[20][21]

Tamil people speakTamil, which belongs to theDravidian languages and is one of the oldestclassical languages.^[22][23][24] According to epigraphistIravatham Mahadevan, the rudimentaryTamil Brahmi script originated in South India in the 3rd century BCE.^[25][26] Though the old Tamil preserved features ofProto-Dravidian language,^[27] modern-day spoken Tamil usesloanwords from other languages such asEnglish.^[28][29] The existent Tamil grammar is largely based on the grammar bookNaṉṉūl which incorporates facets from the old Tamil literary workTolkāppiyam.^[30] The Tamil grammar is classified into five divisions, namelyeḻuttu (letter),sol (word),poruḷ (content),yāppu (prosody), andaṇi (figure of speech).^[31][32] Since the later part of the 19th century, Tamils made the language as a key part of the Tamil identity and personified the language in the form ofTamil̲taay ("Tamil mother").^[33] Variousvarieties of Tamil is spoken across regions such asMadras Bashai,Kongu Tamil,Madurai Tamil,Nellai Tamil, Kumari Tamil and variousSri Lankan Tamil dialects such as Batticaloa Tamil, Jaffna Tamil and Negombo Tamil in Sri Lanka.^[34][35]

Tamil literature is of considerable antiquity compared to the contemporary literature from other Indian languages and represents one of the oldest bodies of literature in South Asia.^[36][37] The earliest epigraphic records have been dated to around the 3rd century BCE.^[38] Early Tamil literature was composed in three successive poetic assemblies known asTamil Sangams,^[39][40] the earliest of which destroyed by floods.^[41][42] The Sangam literature was broadly classified into three divisions:iyal (poetry),isai (music) andnadagam (drama). There are no surviving works from the later two categories and literature from the first category were further classified intoillakkanam (grammar) andilakkiyam (poetry).^[43] The sangam literature was broadly based on two genres,akam (internal) andpuram (external) described on the fivelandscapes.^[44][45]

The oldest surviving book is theTolkappiyam, a treatise on Tamil grammar.^[36][46][47] The early Tamil literature was compiled and classified into two categories:Patinenmelkanakku ("Eighteen Greater Texts") consisting of theEttuttokai ("Eight Anthologies") and thePattuppattu ("Ten Idylls"), and thePatinenkilkanakku ("Eighteen Lesser Texts").^[48][49] The Tamil literature that followed in the next 300 years after the Sangam period is generally called the "post-Sangam" literature which included theFive Great Epics and theFive Minor Epics.^{[42][49][50][51]} Another book of the post Sangam era is theTirukkural, a book on ethics, byThiruvalluvar.^[52]

In the beginning of themiddle age,Vaishnava andShaivite literature became prominent following theBhakti movement in 7th century CE with hymns composed byAlwars andNayanmars.^[53][54][55] Notable work from the post-Bhakti period includedRamavataram byKambar in 12th century CE andTiruppugal byArunagirinathar in 15th century CE.^[56][57] In 1578, the Portuguese published a Tamil book in old Tamil script namedThambiraan Vanakkam, thus making Tamil the first Indian language to be printed and published.^[58]Tamil Lexicon, published by theUniversity of Madras between 1924 and 1939, was amongst the first comprehensivedictionaries published in the language.^[59][60] The 19th century gave rise toTamil Renaissance and writings and poems by authors such asMeenakshi Sundaram Pillai,U.V.Swaminatha Iyer,Damodaram Pillai,V. Kanakasabhai and others.^[61][62][63] During theIndian Independence Movement, many Tamil poets and writers sought to provoke national spirit, notablyBharathiar andBharathidasan.^[64][65]

According to Tamil literature, there are 64 art forms calledaayakalaigal.^[66][67] The art is classified into two broad categories:kavin kalaigal (beautiful art forms) which include architecture, sculpture, painting and poetry andnun kalaigal (fine art forms) which include dance, music and drama.^[68]

Dravidian architecture style of temple architecture consisted of a central sanctum (garbhagriha) topped by pyramidal tower orvimana, porches ormantapas preceding the door leading to the sanctum and large gate-pyramids orgopurams on the quadrangular enclosures that surround the temple. Besides these, they consisted of large pillared halls and one or morewater tanks or wells.^[69][70] The gopuram is a monumental tower, usually ornate at the entrance of the temple forms a prominent feature ofHindu temples of the Dravidian style.^[70][71][72] They are topped bykalasams (finials) and function as gateways through the walls that surround the temple complex.^[73]

There are a number of earlyrock-cut cave-temples established by the various Tamil kingdoms.^[74][75][76] TheGroup of Monuments at Mahabalipuram, built by thePallavas in the 7th and 8th centuries has more than forty rock-cut temples, monoliths androck reliefs.^[77][78][79] The Pallavas, who built the group of monuments inMahabalipuram andKanchipuram, were one of the earliest patronisers of the Dravidian architectural style.^[77][80] These gateways became regular features in theCholas and thePandya architecture, was later expanded by the Vijayanagara and theNayaks and spread to other parts such as Sri Lanka.^[81][82][83]Madurai (also called as "Temple city"), which hosts many temples including the massiveMeenakshi Amman Temple andKanchipuram, considered as one of theseven great holy cities are amongst the notable centres of Dravidian architecture.^[84][85] TheSrirangam Ranganathaswamy Temple, which is amongst the biggest functioning Hindu temples in the world, has a 236 feet (72 m) highRajagopuram.^[86] Thestate emblem also features theLion Capital of Ashoka with an image of a Gopuram on the background.^[87][88]

Vimana, which are similar structures built over the inner sanctum of the temple are usually smaller than the gopurams in the Dravidian architecture with a few exceptions such as theBrihadisvara Temple inThanjavur.^[89][90][91] There are more than 34,000 temples in Tamil Nadu built across various periods some of which are several centuries old.^[92] The influence of Tamil culture had led to the construction of various temples outside India by the Tamil dispora.^[93][94]

TheMugal influence in medieval times and theBritish influence later gave rise to a blend ofHindu,Islamic andGothic revival styles, resulting in the distinctIndo-Saracenic architecture with several institutions during the British era following the style.^[95][96][97] By the early 20th century, theart deco made its entry upon in the urban landscape.^[98] In the later part of the century, the architecture witnessed a rise in themodernconcrete buildings.^[99][100]

Tamil sculpture ranges from stone sculptures in temples, to detailedbronze icons.^[102] The bronze statues of the Cholas are considered to be one of the greatest contributions of Tamil art.^[103] Models made of a special mixture ofbeeswax andsal treeresin were encased in clay and fired to melt the wax leaving a hollow mould, which would then be filled with molten metal and cooled to produce bronze statues.^[104]

Tamil paintings are usually centered around natural, religious or aesthetic themes.^[105]Sittanavasal is a rock-cutmonastery and temple attributed to Pandyas and Pallavas which consist offrescoes andmurals from the 7th century CE, painted with vegetable and mineral dyes in over a thin wet surface of lime plaster.^{[106][107][108]} Similar murals are found in temple walls, the most notable examples are the murals on theRanganathaswamy Temple at Srirangam and the Brihadeeswarar temple at Thanjavur.^{[109][110][111]} One of the major forms of Tamil painting isThanjavur painting, which originated in the 16th century CE where a base made of cloth and coated withzinc oxide is painted using dyes and then decorated with semi-precious stones, as well as silver or gold threads.^[112][113]

The ancient Tamil country had its ownsystem of music calledTamil Pannisai.^[114] Sangam literature such as theSilappatikaram from 2nd century CE describes music notes and instruments.^[115][116] A Pallava inscription dated to the 7th century CE has one of the earliest surviving examples of Indian music in notation.^[117][118] The Pallava inscriptions from the period describe the playing ofstring instrumentveena as a form of exercise for the fingers and the practice of singing musical hymns (Thirupadigam) in temples. From the 9th century CE, Shaivite hymnsThevaram and Vaishnavite hymns (Tiruvaymoli) were sung along with playing of musical instruments.Carnatic music originated later which included rhythmic and structured music by composers suchThyagaraja,Muthuswami Dikshitar, andShyama Shastri.^[119][120]Villu Paatu is an ancient form of musical story-telling method where narration is interspersed with music played from a string bow and accompanying instruments.^[121][122]Gaana, a combination of various folk musics is sung mainly in Chennai.^[123]

There are many traditional instruments from the region dating back to the Sangam period such asparai,^[124]tharai,^[125]yazh,^[126] andmurasu.^[127][128]Nadaswaram, areed instrument that is often accompanied by thethavil, a type ofdrum instrument are the major musical instruments used in temples and weddings.^[129]Melam is from a group ofpercussion instruments from the ancient Tamilakam which are played during events and functions.^{[130][131][132]}

Tyagaraja Aradhana is an annual music festival conducted inTiruvaiyaru, devoted to composer Tyagaraja where thousands of music artists congregate every year.^[133] In theTamil month ofMargazhi, music concerts (katcheris) are generally conducted, popular of which include theMadras Music Season by theMadras Music Academy andChennaiyil Thiruvaiyaru.^{[134][135][136]}

Bharatanatyam is a major genre ofIndian classical dance that originated from Tamil Nadu and practiced till today.^{[137][138][139][140]} It is one of the oldest classical dance forms of India.^[141][142] The dancer is usually dressed in a colorful silksari with various jewelry, special anklets calledsalangai made up of small bells and hair plaited in a specific manner, decorated with flowers in a pattern calledveni.^{[143][144][145]} The dance is characterized by flexing of torso with bent legs or flexed out knees combined with various footwork and a number of gestures known asabhinaya using various handmudras, expressions using the eyes and other face muscles.^[137][146]

There are manyfolk dance forms that originated and are practiced in the region.Karakattam involves dancers balancing decorated pot(s) on the head while making dance movements with the body.^{[147][148][149]}Kavadiattam is part of a ceremonial act of sacrifice, wherein the dancers bear akavadi, an arch shaped wooden stick balanced on the shoulders with weights on both the ends.^[150][151]Kolattam is usually performed by women in which two small sticks (kols) are crisscrossed to make specific rhythms while singing songs.^{[152][153][154]}Kummi is similar to Kolattam, with the difference being that hands are used to make sounds while dancing instead of sticks used in the later.^[155][156] InMayilattam, dancers dressed likepeacocks with peacock feathers and headdresses perform movements to various folk songs and tunes while trying to imitate the movements of a peacock.^[157][158]

Oyilattam, a traditional war dance where few men wearing ankle bells would stand in a line with pieces of colored cloth perform rhythmic steps to the accompanying music.^{[159][160][161]}Paampu attam is a snake dance performed by young girls, who wear specifically designed costumes like asnake skin and emulate movements of a snake.^[162][163]Paraiattam is a traditional dance that involves dancing while playing the parai, an ancientpercussion instrument.^[164][165]Puliyattam is performed by male dancers who paint themselves in yellow and black and wear masks, fuzzy ears, paws,fangs and a tail, and perform movements imitating a tiger.^[166][167]Puravaiattam involves dancers getting into a wooden frame designed like the body of a horse on his/her hips and make prancing movements.^[168][169] Other folk dances include Bhagavatha nadanam, Chakkaiattam, Devarattam, Kai silambattam, Kuravanji, Sevaiattam and Urumiattam.^[170][171]

Koothu is a form of street theater that consists of a play performance which consists of dance along with music, narration and singing.^[172] The performers wear elaborate wooden headgear, special costumes with swirling skirts, ornaments such as heavy anklets along with prominent face painting and make-up. The art is performed during festivals in open public places and is usually dedicated to goddesses such as Mariamman orDraupadi with stories drawn from Hindu epics, mythology and folklore. The dance is accompanied by music played from traditional instruments and akattiyakaran narrates the story during the performance.^[173]

Bommalattam is a type ofpuppetry that uses variousdoll marionettes manipulated by rods and strings attached to them.^[174][175] The puppeteers operate the puppets behind a screen illuminated byoil lamps and wear bells which are sounded along with the movements with background music played by traditional instruments. The themes are drawn from various Hindu scriptures such as thePuranas and epics and/with local folklore.^[176]Chennai Sangamam is a large annual openTamil cultural festival held in Chennai with the intention of rejuvenating the old village festivals, art and artists.^[177]

Silambam is amartial art using a long staff of about 168 cm (66 in) in length, often made of wood such as bamboo.^[178][179] It was used for self-defense and to ward off animals and later evolved into a martial art and dance form.^[180]Adimurai (or Kuttu varisai) is a martial art specializing in empty-hand techniques and application on vital points of the body.^{[181][182][183]}Varma kalai is a Tamil traditional art of vital points which combines alternative medicine and martial arts, attributed to sageAgastiyar and might form part of the training of other martial arts such as silambattam, adimurai orkalari.^[184]Malyutham is the traditional form of combat-wrestling.^[181][185]

Tamil martial arts uses various types of weapons such asvalari (iron sickle),maduvu (deer horns),vaal (sword) andkedayam (shield),surul vaal (curling blade),itti orvel (spear),savuku (whip),kattari (fist blade),aruval (mchete), silambam (bamboo staff),kuttu katai (spiked knuckleduster),kathi (dagger),vil ambu (bow and arrow),tantayutam (mace),soolam (trident),valari (boomerang),chakaram (discus) and theepandam (flaming baton).^[186][187] Since the early Sangam age, war was regarded as an honourable sacrifice and fallen heroes and kings were worshipped withhero stones and heroicmartyrdom was glorified in ancient Tamil literature.^[188]

Tamil Nadu is also home to the Tamil film industry nicknamed asKollywood and is one of the largest industries of film production in India.^[189][190] The term Kollywood is a blend ofKodambakkam andHollywood.^[191]Samikannu Vincent, who had built the first cinema of South India inCoimbatore, introduced the concept of "Tent Cinema" in the early 1900s, in which a tent was erected on a stretch of open land close to a town or village to screen the films. The first of its kind was established in Madras, called "Edison's Grand Cinemamegaphone".^{[192][193][194]} The first silent film in South India was produced in Tamil in 1916 and the first Tamil talkie film wasKalidas, which released on 31 October 1931, barely seven months after the release of India's first talking pictureAlam Ara.^[195][196]

Ancient literature and epigraphical records describe the various types of dresses.^[197][198] Tamil women traditionally wear asari, a garment that consists of a drape varying from 4.6 m (15 ft) to 8.2 m (27 ft) in length and 0.61 m (2 ft) to 1.2 m (4 ft) in breadth that is typically wrapped around the waist, with one end draped over the shoulder, baring the midriff.^{[199][200][201]} Women wear colourfulsilk sarees on traditional occasions.^[202][203] Young girls wear a long skirt calledpavaadai along with a shorter length sari calleddhavani.^[198]Kanchipuram silk sari is a type ofsilk sari made in the Kanchipuram region in Tamil Nadu and these saris are worn as bridal & special occasion saris by most women in South India. It has been recognized as aGeographical indication by the Government of India in 2005–2006.^[204][205]Kovai Cora cotton is a specific type ofcotton saree made in theCoimbatore region.^[205][206]

The men wear aveshti, a rectangular piece of non-stitched cloth, of varying lengths, that is wrapped around the legs and knotted at the waist. It is often white, bordered in brightly coloured stripes.^[207] The style of draping might vary between communities, and men sometimes wear a hip belt to hold the veshti in place.^[208] Traditional attire includes adhoti, a costume similar to veshti, which is a long, white rectangular piece of non-stitched cloth, that is wrapped around the waist, looped around the legs (similar to trousers) and knotted at the waist.^[209] Alungi, which is similar to a veshti but made tubular with the ends stitched together, designed with colourfulbatik patterns, is a common form of male attire in the countryside.^[207][210] People in urban areas generally wear tailored clothing, and western dress is popular. Western-style school uniforms are worn by both boys and girls in schools, even in rural areas.^[210]

The Tamil calendar is asiderealsolar calendar.^[211] TheTamilPanchangam is based on the same and is generally used in contemporary times to check auspicious times for cultural and religious events.^[212] The calendar follows a 60-year cycle.^[213] There are 12 months in a year starting withChithirai when theSun enters the firstRāśi and the number of days in a month varies between 29 and 32.^[214] The new year starts following theMarch equinox in the middle of April.^[215] The days of week (kiḻamai) in the Tamil calendar relate to the celestial bodies in the solar system:Sun,Moon,Mars,Mercury,Jupiter,Venus, andSaturn, in that order.^[216]

Hospitality is a major feature of Tamil culture.^[217] It was considered as a social obligation and offering food to guests was regarded as one of the highest virtues.^[218][219]Rice is the diet staple and is served withsambar,rasam, andporiyal as a part of a Tamil meal.^[220][221]Bananas find mention in the Sangam literature and the traditional way of eating a meal involves having the food served on abanana leaf, which is discarded after the meal. Eating on banana leaves imparts a unique flavor to the food, and is considered healthy.^{[222][223][224]} Food is usually eaten seated on the floor and the finger tips of the right hand is used to take the food to the mouth.^[225]

There are regional sub-varieties namely Chettinadu, Kongunadu, Nanjilnadu, Pandiyanadu and Sri Lankan Tamil cuisines.^[226][227] There are both vegetarian and meat dishes withfish traditionally consumed across the coast and other meat preferred in the interiors. The Chettinadu cuisine is popular for its meat based dishes and generous usage ofspices.^[228] The Kongunadu cuisine uses less spices and are generally cooked fresh. It usescoconut,sesame seeds,groundnut, andturmeric to go with various cereals and pulses grown in the region.^[228][229] Nanjilnadu cuisine is milder and is usually based on fish and vegetables.^[228] Sri Lankan Tamil cuisine usesgingelly oil andjaggery along with coconut and spices, which differentiates it from the other culinary traditions in the island.^[227]Biryani is a popular dish with several different versions prepared across various regions.^[229]Idli, anddosa are popular breakfast dishes and other dishes cooked by to the Tamil people includeupma,^[230]idiappam,^[231]pongal,^[232]paniyaram,^[233] andparotta.^[234]

Siddha medicine is a form oftraditional medicine originating from the Tamils and is one of the oldest systems of medicine in India.^[235] The word literally means perfection in Tamil and the system focuses on wholesome treatment based on various factors. As per Tamil tradition, the knowledge of Siddha medicine came fromShiva, which was passed on to 18 holy men known asSiddhar led byAgastya. The knowledge was then passed on orally and through palm leaf manuscripts to the later generations.^[236] Siddha practitioners believe that all objects including the human body is composed of five basic elements – earth, water, fire, air, sky which are present in food and other compounds, which is used as the basis for the drugs and other therapies.^[237]

Pongal is a major and multi-dayharvest festival celebrated by Tamils in the month ofThai according to theTamil solar calendar (usually falls on 14 or 15 January).^[238][239] It is dedicated to theSurya, the Sun God and the festival is named after the ceremonial "Pongal", which means "to boil, overflow" and refers to the traditional dish prepared from the new harvest of rice boiled in milk withjaggery offered to Surya.^{[240][241][242][243]} Mattu Pongal is meant for celebration ofcattle when the cattle are bathed, their horns polished and painted in bright colors, garlands of flowers placed around their necks and processions.^[244][245]Jallikattu is a traditional event held during the period attracting huge crowds in which a bull is released into a crowd of people, and multiple human participants attempt to grab the large hump on the bull's back with both arms and hang on to it while the bull attempts to escape.^[246][247]

Puthandu is known as Tamil New Year which marks the first day of year on theTamil calendar and falls on in April every year on theGregorian calendar.^[249]Karthikai Deepam is a festival of lights that is observed on thefull moon day of theKartika month, called theKartika Pournami, falling on the months of November or December.^[250][251]Thaipusam is a Tamil festival celebrated on the first full moon day of the Tamil month of Thai coinciding withPusam star and dedicated toMurugan.^[252][253]Aadi Perukku is a Tamil cultural festival celebrated on the 18th day of the Tamil month ofAdi which pays tribute towater's life-sustaining properties. The worship ofAmman andAyyanar deities are organized during the month in temples across Tamil Nadu with much fanfare.^[132]Panguni Uthiram is marked on thepurnima (full moon) of the month ofPanguni and celebrates the wedding of various Hindu gods.^[254][255]Vaikasi Visakam is celebrated on the day themoon transits theVisakanakshatram inVaikasi (May–June), the second month of the Tamil Calendar and commemorates the birth of Murugan.^[256][257]Eid al-Fitr is the major Muslim festival celebrated by the Tamils.^[258] Other festivals celebrated includeGanesh Chaturthi,Navarathri,Deepavali andChristmas.^{[259][260][261]}

As per the Sangam era works, theSangam landscape was classified into five categories known asthinais, which were associated with aHindu deity:Murugan inkurinji (hills),Thirumal inmullai (forests),Indiran inmarutham (plains),Varunan in theneithal (coasts) andKotravai inpalai (desert).^[262] Thirumal is indicated as a deity during the Sangam era, who was regarded asParamporul ("the suprement one") and is also known as Māyavan, Māmiyon, Netiyōn, and Māl in various Sangam literature.^[263][264] WhileShiva worship existed in the Shaivite culture as a part of the Tamil pantheon,Murugan became regarded as theTamil kadavul ("God of the Tamils").^{[265][266][267]} There are a number of hill temples dedicated to Murugan foremost of which are the group of sixArupadaiveedu temples.^[268] As per theHindu epicRamayana (7th to 5th century BCE),Rama crossed over to Sri Lanka from theRameswaram island via theRama Setu on his journey to rescue his wife,Sita from theRavana.^[269][270]

Jainism existed from the Sangam era with inscriptions and drip-ledges from 1st century BCE to 6th century CE and temple monuments likely built byDigambara Jains in the 9th century CE found inChitharal and severalTamil-Brahmi inscriptions, stone beds and sculptures from more than 2,200 years ago found inSamanar hills.^[271][272] TheKalabhra dynasty, who were patrons of Jainism, ruled over theancient Tamil country in the 3rd–7th century CE.^[273][274] Old Jain temples includeKanchi Trilokyanatha temple,Chitharal Jain Temple, and theTirumalai temple complex that houses a 16 ft (4.9 m) high sculpture ofNeminatha dated from the 12th century CE.^{[275][276][277]}Buddhism had an influence in Tamil Nadu before the later Middle Ages with ancient texts referring to aVihāra inNākappaṭṭinam from the time ofAshoka in 3rd century BCE and Buddhist relics from 4th century CE found inKaveripattinam.^[278][279] TheChudamani Vihara in Nagapattinam was later re-built by theSrivijaya kingMaravijayottunggavarman under the patronage ofRaja Raja Chola I in early 11th century CE.^[280] Around the 7th century CE, thePandyas andPallavas, who patronized Buddhism and Jainism, became patrons of Hinduism following the revival ofSaivism andVaishnavism during theBhakti movement led by Alwars and Nayanmars.^[281][53] The Bhakti movement gave rise to the 108Divya Desams dedicated to Vishnu and his consortLakshmi, that are mentioned in theworks of the Alvars,^[282] and the various Shaivite temples dedicated toShiva including the 276Paadal Petra Sthalams that are revered in the verses of Nayanars in the 6th-9th century CE andPancha Bhuta Sthalams each representing a manifestation of the five prime elements of nature.^[283][284]

Meenakshi Temple atMadurai (left) andNallur Kandaswamy temple inSri Lanka

In Tamil tradition, Murugan is the youngest son of Shiva andParvati andPillayar is regarded as the eldest son, who is venerated as theMudanmudar kadavul ("foremost god").^[285] The worship ofAmman, also calledMariamman, is thought to have been derived from an ancientmother goddess, and is also very common.^{[286][287][288]} In rural areas, local deities, calledAiyyan̲ār (also known as Karuppan, Karrupasami), are worshipped who are thought to protect the villages from harm.^[286][289]Idol worship forms a part of the Tamil Hindu culture similar to the Hindu traditions.^[290][291] Large idols are common withNamakkal Anjaneyar Temple hosts a 18 ft (5.5 m) tallHanuman statue and temples like theEachanari Vinayagar temple in Coimbatore,Karpaka Vinayakar temple in Pillayarapatti, andUchippillaiyar temple in Tiruchirappalli accommodating largeGanesha statues.^{[292][293][294]}

Erwadi Dargah (left),Velankanni basilica (center) andTirumalaiMahavira temple

The Christian apostle,St. Thomas, is believed to have preachedChristianity in the area around Chennai between 52 and 70 CE and theSanthome Church, which was originally built by the Portuguese in 1523, is believed to house the remains of St. Thomas, was rebuilt in 1893 inneo-Gothic style.^[295] The 16th century CEBasilica of Our Lady of Good Health atVelankanni, known as the 'Lourdes of the East', was declared as a holy city by thepope and is the primary place of worship of Tamil Christians.^[296]Islam was introduced due to the influence of the Arab merchants and the Muslim rulers from the north in themiddle ages. The majority ofTamil Muslims speak Tamil rather thanUrdu as their mother tongue as they were converts from the native population.^[297][298]Erwadi inRamanathapuram district, which houses an 840-year-oldmosque andNagore Dargah are important places of worship for Tamil Muslims.^[299][300]

As of the 21st century, majority of the Tamils are adherents of Hinduism.^[301] The migration of Tamils to other countries resulted in new Hindu temples being constructed in places with significant population of Tamil people and people of Tamil origin, and countries with significant Indian migrants.^[302] Sri Lankan Tamils predominantly worship Murugan with numerous temples existing throughout the island includingKataragama temple,Nallur Kandaswamy temple andMaviddapuram Kandaswamy Temple.^[303][304] Amongst the other notable temples is the Sri Subramanyar Temple atBatu Caves temple complex inMalaysia, which has one of the largest Murugan statues in the world.^[305][306]Atheist,rationalist, andhumanist philosophies are also adhered by sizeable minorities, as a result of Tamil cultural revivalism in the 20th century, and its antipathy to what it saw as Brahminical Hinduism.^[307]

• Tamil culture
• Tamils

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