Tamarind (Tamarindus indica) is aleguminous tree bearing edible fruit that is indigenous totropical Africa and naturalized inAsia.[6][7] The genusTamarindus ismonotypic, meaning that it contains only this species. It belongs to the familyFabaceae.
The tamarind is a long-living, medium-growthtree, which attains a maximumcrown height of 25–30 metres (82–98 feet).[6] The crown has an irregular,vase-shaped outline of densefoliage up to 12 m (39 ft) wide.[6] A tamarind trunk may grow to a circumference of 7.5 m (25 ft).[6] The tree grows well in full sun. It prefersclay,loam,sandy, and acidic soil types, with a high resistance to drought and wind-borne salt as found in coastal areas.[6]
Theevergreen leaves are alternately arranged andparipinnately compound. The leaflets are bright green, elliptic-ovular,pinnately veined, and less than 15 centimetres (6 inches) in length.[6] The branches droop from a single, centraltrunk as the tree matures, and are oftenpruned in agriculture to optimize tree density and ease of fruit harvest.[6]
As a tropical species, it is frost-sensitive. The pinnate leaves with opposite leaflets give a billowing effect in the wind. Tamarindtimber consists of hard, dark redheartwood and softer, yellowishsapwood.[6][9]
The tamarind flowers bloom (although inconspicuously), with red and yellow elongated flowers. Flowers are 2.5 cm (1 in) wide, five-petalled, borne in smallracemes, and yellow with orange or red streaks.[6]Buds are pink as the foursepals are pink and are lost when the flowerblooms.[10]
The fruit has a fleshy, acidic pulp, becoming mature when the flesh is colored brown or reddish brown.[6] The tamarinds of Asia have longer pods (containing six to 12 seeds), whereas African and West Indian varieties have shorter pods (containing one to six seeds). The seeds are somewhat flattened, and a glossy brown. The fruit is sweet and sour in taste.[6] A mature tree may produce up to 225 kg (496 lb) of fruit each year.[6]
The name derives fromArabic:تمر هندي,romanizedtamr hindi, "Indiandate".[14] Several early medieval herbalists and physicians wrotetamar indi, medieval Latin use wastamarindus, andMarco Polo wrote oftamarandi.
In Colombia, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Cuba, the Dominican Republic, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Mexico, Peru, Puerto Rico, Venezuela, Italy, Spain, and throughout theLusosphere, it is calledtamarindo. In those countries it is often used to make thebeverage of the same name (oragua de tamarindo). In the Caribbean, tamarind is sometimes calledtamón.[citation needed]
Tamarindus indica isindigenous to tropical Africa,[6][18] but has been cultivated for so long on the Indian subcontinent that it is sometimes reported to be indigenous there.[6] It grows wild in Africa. In Arabia, it is found growing wild in Oman, especiallyDhofar, where it grows on the sea-facing slopes of mountains. It reached South Asia likely through human transportation and cultivation several thousand years ago.[6][19] It is widely distributed throughout the tropics,[6] from Africa to South Asia. In Madagascar, its fruit and leaves are a well-known favorite of thering-tailed lemur, providing as much as 50 percent of their food resources during the year if available.[20]
In the 16th century, it was introduced to Mexico and Central America, and to a lesser degree to South America, by Spanish and Portuguese colonists, to the degree that it became a staple ingredient in the region's cuisine.[21]
Most parts of the tamarind tree (including the wood, bark, flowers, leaves, pulp and seeds) have various environmental, commercial, and culinary uses.[6] Tamarind trees are used as shade trees andornamental trees (common along highways and in parks).[6]
Raw tamarind fruit is 63%carbohydrates, 31% water, 3%protein, and 1%fat (table). In a reference amount of 100 g (3.5 oz), raw tamarind supplies 1,000 kilojoules (240 kilocalories) offood energy, and is a rich source (20% or more of theDaily Value, DV) ofthiamine (36% DV) anddietary minerals, includingmagnesium andpotassium at 22% and 21% DV, respectively (table).
The fruit is harvested by pulling the pod from its stalk.[6] The hard green pulp of a young fruit is used in savory dishes, as apickling agent or as a means of making certain poisonousyams in Ghana safe for human consumption.[7] As the fruit matures, it becomes sweeter and less sour (acidic). The sourness varies between cultivars and some sweet tamarind ones have almost no acidity when ripe.[citation needed]
Tamarind pulp is the most common part of the tamarind plant used inchutneys, curries, and sauces, such asWorcestershire sauce,[24]HP Sauce, some brands ofbarbecue sauce,[25][26] and the traditionalsharbat syrup drink.[27] Tamarind sweet chutney is common in India and Pakistan as a dressing for many snacks and often served withsamosa.[28]
Across the Middle East, from theLevant toIran, tamarind is used in savory dishes, notably meat-based stews, and often combined with dried fruits to achieve a sweet-sour tang.[29][30] DuringRamadan, tamarind is used to prepare a traditional beverage known as "tamr-hindi," which is particularly popular in theLevant region. The drink is made by boiling tamarind paste in water, sweetening it with sugar, and then straining the mixture. In some variations,rosewater andlemon juice are added to enhance its flavor. Street vendors play a significant role in distributing this beverage, carrying large copper pots filled with the juice on their backs. They typically arrange numerous cups around their waist to conveniently serve the drink to passersby in the streets.[31]
Tamarind has been integrated intokosher andJewish cuisine across several diasporas, beginning with its introduction to theMiddle East via Jewish merchants on theSilk Road in the7th century. Syrian Jews prepare tamarind syrup, known as ou or ouc, by soaking, straining, and boiling the fruit pulp with sugar and lemon, using it in dishes such as yebra (stuffed grape leaves), bazargan (bulgur salad),keftes (sweet-sour meatballs), and laham b'ajeen (meat flatbread). InIndia, Baghdadi,Cochin, andBene Israel Jews use tamarind in regional recipes like bamia khutta, mahmoora, tamarind rice, and lamb with red chilies.Syrian Jewish communities inMexico have adapted tamarind-based dishes with local ingredients, exemplified by chicken with tamarind,apricots, andchipotle. In contemporaryIsrael, tamarind juice has gained popularity beyond traditional communities, aided by commercial offerings likePrigat's seasonal releases duringRamadan.[32][unreliable source?][33][unreliable source?]
In the Philippines, the whole fruit is used as one of the souring agents of the sour soupsinigang (which can also use other sour fruits), as well as another type of soup calledsinampalukan (which uses tamarind leaves).[34] The fruit pulp is cooked in sugar and salt to makechampóy na sampalok (or simply "sampalok candy"), a traditional tamarind candy.[35] Indonesia also has a similarly sour, tamarind-based soup dish calledsayur asem.[citation needed]
In Sri Lanka, tamarind pulp has been used as a lime alternative, and in Senegal, the pulp is mixed with sugar to produce sweet meats known as 'bengal'.[7] In India, tamarind pulp is made into a juice used in the preservation of fish, and in many countries of East Africa, the pulp is used in the making of a dish calledugali (a type of maize flour porridge).[36]
Tamarind seeds need to be soaked and boiled in water before they are edible.[37] The seeds are commonly used in jellies, marmalades and jams because they contain pectin which gives them jelly-forming properties, and have been used as a stabilizer to make cheese, ice cream and mayonnaise.[7][6] In Indonesia, after the seeds have been roasted, they are consumed as a snack accompanied with salt and grated coconut and in Thailand tamarind seeds are used as a coffee alternative.[6]
The leaves and bark are also edible, and the seeds can be cooked to make safe for consumption.[38] Blanched, tender tamarind leaves are used in aBurmese salad calledmagyi ywet thoke (lit.'tamarind leaf salad'), a salad fromUpper Myanmar that features tender blanched tamarind leaves, garlic, onions, roasted peanuts, and pounded dried shrimp.[39] Tamarind seeds contain high levels ofprotein (26.9 grams per 100 grams) and oil (10.9 grams per 100 grams) and in some countries, tamarind seeds are used as anemergency food because of their high protein levels.[7][36] The leaves of the tamarind plant are high in calcium and protein and have been consumed by domestic animals and wild animals, including elephants, as a fodder.[7]
Tamarind seed oil is made from the kernel of tamarind seeds.[40] The kernel is difficult to isolate from its thin but tough shell (ortesta). It has a similar consistency to linseed oil, and can be used to make paint or varnish.[41]
Tamarind kernel powder is used assizing material for textile and jute processing, and in the manufacture of industrial gums and adhesives.[6]
Tamarind seeds are used in the production of tamarind kernel powder which is used as a sizing agent in the textile industry because of its ability to absorb water and swell up, in India, tamarind kernel powder has also been used as a sizing agent in the production of cotton.[37] In Bengal, tamarind seeds are used in the production of an oil used in varnishes.[7] leaves and flowers are used as a setting agent for dyes.[6][7]
Composition of tamarind seed kernel
Composition
Original
De-oiled
Oil
7.6%
0.6%
Protein
7.6%
19.0%
Polysaccharide
51.0%
55.0%
Crude fiber
1.2%
1.1%
Total ash
3.9%
3.4%
Acid insoluble ash
0.4%
0.3%
Moisture
7.1%
The fatty acid composition of the oil islinoleic 46.5%,oleic 27.2%, andsaturated fatty acids 26.4%. The oil is usually bleached after refining.
InSoutheast Asia, tamarind fruit is used as apoultice applied to the foreheads of people with fevers.[11] The fruit exhibitslaxative effects for relief ofconstipation.[42][43][44]Extracts of steamed and sun-dried old tamarind pulp (asem kawa) inJava are used to treat skin problems, like rashes and irritation; one traditional practice indicated tamarind could be ingested after dilution for use as anabortifacient.[15]
Different parts of the tamarind plant have been used globally for other purposes in folk medicine.[7] In the northern parts of Nigeria, the roots of the tamarind plant are thought to be useful for treating leprosy, and in America, tamarind pulp is considered in folk medicine to be a laxative and used for alleviating sunstroke and sore throats.[36][45] In Thailand, the pulp has been transformed into a tablet in the belief it can reduce excess weight, and in Brazil, the pulp is used for its supposed hydrating effects.[7] Tamarind seeds have been used in powdered form to possibly aid dysentery in India and Cambodia, and in Ethiopia, softened tamarind seeds are used as a possible treatment for parasitic worms.[7][46]
Tamarind wood is used to make furniture, boats (as perRumphius) carvings, turned objects such asmortars and pestles, chopping blocks, and other small specialty wood items likekrises.[15] Tamarind heartwood is reddish brown, sometimes with a purplish hue. The heartwood in tamarind tends to be narrow and is usually only present in older and larger trees. The pale yellow sapwood is sharply demarcated from the heartwood. Heartwood is said to be durable to very durable in decay resistance, and is also resistant to insects. Its sapwood is not durable and is prone to attack by insects andfungi as well asspalting. Due to its density and interlocked grain, tamarind is considered difficult to work. Heartwood has a pronounced blunting effect on cutting edges. Tamarind turns, glues, and finishes well. The heartwood is able to take a high natural polish.[47]
In homes and temples, especially inBuddhist Asian countries includingMyanmar, the fruit pulp is used to polish brass shrine statues and lamps, and copper, brass, and bronze utensils.[48]
Seeds can bescarified or briefly boiled to enhancegermination. They retain their germination capability for several months if kept dry.[6]
Tamarind is a traditional food plant in Africa. Although not grown on a large-scale commercial basis,[7] it has the potential to improve nutrition, boost food security, foster rural development, and support sustainable land care.[51]
The tree is widely cultivated across India, especially inMaharashtra,Chhattisgarh,Karnataka,Telangana,Andhra Pradesh, andTamil Nadu. Extensive tamarind orchards in India produced 250,000 tonnes (250,000 long tons; 280,000 short tons) annually in the late 20th century.[6] It has long beennaturalized in Indonesia, Malaysia, Sri Lanka, the Philippines, the Caribbean, and Pacific Islands.[6] Thailand has the largest plantations of theASEAN nations, followed by Indonesia, Myanmar, and the Philippines. In parts of Southeast Asia, tamarind is calledasam.[52]
In the United States, it is a large-scale crop introduced for commercial use (second in net production quantity only to India), mainly in southern states, notably south Florida, and as a shade tree, along roadsides, in dooryards and in parks.[53]
Throughout South Asia and the tropical world, tamarind trees are used as ornamental and garden plantings. Commonly used as abonsai species in many Asian countries, it is also grown as an indoor bonsai in temperate parts of the world.[54]
Tamarind is toxic to dogs. The symptoms – which may include vomiting or diarrhea within 6–12 hours of ingestion, lethargy, dehydration oracute kidney injury – and proposed mechanism (viatartaric acid) are the same as ingrape toxicity in dogs.[55]
^"Ring-Tailed Lemur". Wisconsin Primate Research Center. RetrievedNovember 14, 2016.
^Tamale E, Jones N, Pswarayi-Riddihough I (August 1995).Technologies Related to Participatory Forestry in Tropical and Subtropical Countries. World Bank Publications.ISBN978-0-8213-3399-0.
^Havinga RM, Hartl A, Putscher J, et al. (February 2010). "Tamarindus indica L. (Fabaceae): Patterns of Use in Traditional African Medicine".Journal of Ethnopharmacology.127 (3):573–588.doi:10.1016/j.jep.2009.11.028.PMID19963055.
^Panthong A, Khonsung P, Kunanusorn P, et al. (July 2008). "The laxative effect of fresh pulp aqueous extracts of Thai Tamarind cultivars".Planta Medica.74 (9).Bibcode:2008PlMed..7484885P.doi:10.1055/s-0028-1084885.
^Havinga RM, Hartl A, Putscher J, et al. (February 17, 2010). "Tamarindus indica L. (Fabaceae): Patterns of use in traditional African medicine".Journal of Ethnopharmacology.127 (3):573–588.doi:10.1016/j.jep.2009.11.028.ISSN0378-8741.PMID19963055.
^Imam S, Azhar I, Hasan MM, et al. (2007). "Two triterpenes lupanone and lupeol isolated and identified from Tamarindus indica linn".Pakistan Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences.20 (2):125–7.PMID17416567.
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