Talking birds are birds that can mimic the speech of humans. There is debate within the scientific community over whether some talking parrots also have some cognitive understanding of the language. Birds have varying degrees of talking ability: some, like thecorvids, are able to mimic only a few words and phrases, while somebudgerigars have been observed to have a vocabulary of almost 2,000 words. Thecommon hill myna, a common pet, is well known for its talking ability and its relative, thecommon starling, is also adept at mimicry.[1] Wildcockatoos in Australia have been reported to have learned human speech bycultural transmission from ex-captive birds that have integrated into the flock.[2]
The earliest reference to a talking bird comes fromCtesias in the 5th century BC. The bird, which he called Bittacus,[3] may have been aplum-headed parakeet.[4]
The young of some birds learn to communicate vocally bysocial learning, imitating their parents, as well as the dominant birds of their flock. Lackingvocal cords, birds are thought to make tones and sounds using throat muscles and membranes – thesyrinx in particular.[5] There are likely to be limitations on the sounds that birds can mimic due to differences in anatomical structures, such as their lacking lips.
It has been suggested that mimicry amongst birds is almost ubiquitous and it is likely that eventually, all species will be shown to be able to have some ability to mimic extra-specific sounds (but not necessarily human speech).[6] Mimicking human speech is not limited to captive birds. Wild Australian magpies, lyrebirds and bowerbirds that interact with humans but remain free can still mimic human speech.[6]
Songbirds andparrots are the two groups of birds able to learn and mimic human speech.[5][7] Both belong to the cladePsittacopasseres. If then introduced to wild birds, the wild birds may also mimic the new sounds. This phenomenon has been observed in public parks inSydney,Australia, where wild parrots utter phrases such as "Hello darling!" and "What's happening?"[5]
Amusk duck (Biziura lobata) namedRipper was recorded imitating human speech in 1987.[8] No other waterfowl have been documented imitating speech.[9]
Galahs (Eolophus roseicapilla) can talk, although not as well as some other parrots. Male galahs are reportedly easier to teach than females.[10]
Thelong-billed corella (Cacatua tenuirostris) is described as being able to talk "very clearly".[11]
Thesulphur-crested cockatoo (Cacatua sulphurea) is rated as a fair-to-good talker.[12][13]
The African grey parrots (Psittacus) are particularly noted for their advancedcognitive abilities and their ability to talk. There are two commonly kept species of which theTimneh parrot (Psittacus timneh) tends to learn to speak at a younger age than theCongo parrot (Psittacus erithacus).[14] Pet Congo greys may learn to speak within their first year, but many do not say their first word until 12–18 months old.[15] Timnehs are generally observed to start speaking earlier, some in their late first year.[16]
Themonk parakeet (Myiopsitta monachus), sometimes known as the quaker parakeet, is also a skilled talker.[14]
Many species of the genusAmazona are talkers, including theyellow-headed parrot (Amazona oratrix),yellow-crowned parrot (Amazona ochrocephala),yellow-naped parrot (Amazona auropalliata),blue-fronted parrot (Amazona aestiva),white-fronted parrot (Amazona albifrons),lilac-crowned amazon (Amazona finschi),orange-winged parrot (Amazona amazonica),Panama amazon (Amazona ochrocephala panamensis) andmealy parrot (Amazona farinosa).[14][17][18][19][20][21][22] They tend to relate sounds to relationships more than grey parrots, thereby outperforming grey parrots in more social environments.
Macaws can also be considered to be good talkers.
TheAustralian king parrot (Alisterus scapularis) can be trained to talk if it is hand-reared.[23]
Theeclectus parrot (Eclectus) is a strong talker, although these abilities depend entirely on training from an early age.[14]
Theslaty-headed parakeet (Psittacula himalayana) generally does not learn to talk.[24]
Theblossom-headed parakeet (Psittacula roseata) is rare and therefore not often kept as a pet, however, they are good talkers.[25]
TheDerbyan parakeet (Psittacula derbianais) is an excellent talker. The clarity of their speech has been compared to that of amazon parrots although they may not learn extensive vocabularies.[26]
TheAfrican rose-ringed parakeet (Psittacula krameri krameri), a subspecies of therose-ringed parakeet, can also talk, but some may never learn if not trained at an early age.[27] TheIndian rose-ringed parakeet (Psittacula krameri manillensis), another subspecies of the rose-ringed parakeet, is an accomplished talker and popular pet which can develop a large vocabulary and talk clearly in sentences.[14]
Thebudgerigar, or commonparakeet (Melopsittacus undulatus), is a popular talking-bird species because of their potential for large vocabularies, ease of care and well-socialized demeanor.[28] Between 1954 and 1962, a budgerigar namedSparkie Williams held the record for having the largest vocabulary of a talking bird; at his death, he knew 531 words and 383 sentences.[3] In 1995, a budgerigar named Puck was credited byGuinness World Records as having the largestvocabulary of any bird, at 1,728 words.[29]
Theblack-winged lovebird (Agapornis taranta) can talk if trained at an early age; however, they only rarely develop into competent talkers.[30]
In Australia,lyrebirds are great mimics of many sounds, including the human voice. Lyrebirds have three syringeal muscles whereas most other songbirds have four. This could make the syrinx of the lyrebird more flexible.[6][31] In a study comparing thesonograms of lyrebirds and Australian magpies during mimicking, the author stated that the mimicry of the lyrebird was "impressionistic" while that of the magpie was "realistic".[6]
Thetui is a bird ofNew Zealand that has been known to mimic human speech.[32]
One hand-raisedAustralian magpie (Gymnorhina tibicen) developed the ability to mimic human speech, including words and phrases. This individual mimicked a large number of (non-human) sounds, but a third of all mimicked sounds were of human speech.[6] The author stated that mimicry by the magpie was far more accurate than that of the lyrebird.[6]
Several members of thecorvids or crow family, such asravens, can mimic human speech. The best talking crows may be the ones found in captivity at zoos and wildlife centers.[33][34]
Thenorthern mockingbird (Mimus polyglottos), as both the common and taxonomic names suggest, are mimickers of a great number of sounds. This includes human speech.[35]
Thecommon hill myna (Gracula religiosa) is renowned for its ability to mimic the human voice. It has been claimed that the common hill mynah is the best talking bird and the best mimic in the world.[36]
Thecommon starling (Sturnus vulgaris) is an exceptional mimic, including human speech.[37] Its ability at mimicry is so great that strangers have looked in vain for the human they think they have just heard speak.[38]
Adomestic canary (Serinus canaria formadomestica) named Pinchi, who lived in 1966 from 2–3 months of age with a resident of the city ofLeningrad, learned to imitate the human speech of his owner-educator and weave it into his song. The bird began to repeat the tunes of its mistress's high voice "Pinchi, Briks – cute birds, weird little birds, these are these birds" after 4 months and in year and a half canary Pinchi completely formed his song from the words of human speech and the trills of birds. The singing of canary Pinchi, containing the words of human speech, was recorded on a tape recorder, and then published on a gramophone record in the record companyMelodiya. In 1976, copies of this record were attached to the book by A. S. Malchevsky and co-authors "Birds in front of a microphone and a camera", and were also sold separately.[39][40][41][42]
Several theories have been proposed regarding the function of audible mimicry in general; however, these do not make a specific theory regarding why human speech is mimicked. Several of the theories will apply to only some species due to social structure, habitat and behavioural ecology.
It has been suggested that (general) mimicry of non-bird related sounds is simply a mistaken attempt to copy species-specific calls.[6]
In the wild, flocks of parrots develop distinct local dialects. Research indicates they use these to distinguish familiar members of their flock from unfamiliar birds of other flocks. Birds respond more to vocalisations that are familiar to their own, and they ostracize individuals that vocalise in a different way. Birds raised in captivity might mimic humans, particularly their owners, to gain acceptance as a member of the family (flock). If they hear a word or phrase repeatedly, they might interpret that as a vocalisation distinct to their flock. They then attempt to make the vocalisation themselves to maintain their membership of that flock. If the parrot gets no response when it squawks a natural parrot vocalisation, but receives attention or food when it mimics human speech, it has an extra incentive to repeat human words and phrases.[43]
The territorial song of lyrebirds is relatively simple and substantially different from that of the sounds they mimic—including human speech.
One proposed[citation needed] function for (general) mimicry is that mimics have evolved to have a wide repertoire of vocalisations to increase their reproductive success. The male lyrebird, for example, adorns his song with many different mimicked sounds, often the songs of other nearby birds, but can include car horns, chainsaws and barking dogs.
General mimicry may help a bird prevent itself or its offspring from being preyed upon. For example, the Australian magpie mimics the call of thebarking owl and theboobook owl, both predators of the magpie's young.[citation needed]
Some birds, such as the Australian magpie, mimic only those noises it hears whilst in its territory. It has been suggested that birds with complex social organisation may develop an auditory map of their territory, as well as visual, and that mimicking facilitates this process.[6]
There is controversy about whether parrots are capable of using language, or merely mimic what they hear. However, some scientific studies—for example those conducted over a 30-year period byIrene Pepperberg with a grey parrot namedAlex and other parrots, covered in stories on network television on numerous occasions[44]—have suggested that these parrots are capable of using words meaningfully in linguistic tasks.[45]
Some in the scientific community are skeptical of Pepperberg's findings, pointing to Alex's communications asoperant conditioning.[46] Critics point to the case ofClever Hans, a horse whose owner claimed could count, but who instead was actually understanding subtle cues from him.[47] In another case,Nim Chimpsky, a chimpanzee, was thought to be using language, but there is some debate over whether he simply imitated his teacher.[47] Dr. Herbert Terrace, who worked with Nim Chimpsky, says he thinks Alex performed byrote rather than using language; he calls Alex's responses "a complex discriminating performance", adding that in every situation, "there is an external stimulus that guides his response."[47] Supporters of Alex mention that Alex was able to talk to and perform for anyone involved in the project as well as complete strangers who recorded findings unassisted and during first contact with the bird.[48]
Scientists in France and the Czech Republic have also had some success in teaching grey parrots to label items referentially using human language, albeit using a different teaching methodology to that of Pepperberg—which was found to be ineffective in the case of the particular birds within the study.[49]
Alex, agrey parrot, had a vocabulary of about 100 words, substantially fewer than world record holders,[50] but he is perhaps the best known talking bird due to the publicity surrounding his potential cognitive abilities.[51][52][53] Alex was the first ever recorded animal to have asked a question, asking "What color?" upon looking in the mirror, and learning both the answer and the word "Gray".[54] Alex died on September 6, 2007.[55]
Apollo, a grey parrot, who is currently being raised by Tori and Dalton Mason in a home setting. His training model is based on the model used for Alex the grey parrot, with some changes such as the home setting and a lack of strict focus on specific subjects, instead being trained based on his interests.[56] He can answer various complex questions, often answering several for apistachio reward. He is capable of identifying many objects, the material from which those objects are made, what color they are, and various actions such as "hat" (placing an object on one's head), and "pour water". He is the second ever recorded animal and grey parrot to have asked a question,[57] after Alex the grey parrot. He holds a custom Guinness World Record for "Most items identified by a parrot in three minutes," at 12 items.[58]
"Poll" was a parrot owned by United States PresidentAndrew Jackson. Poll was reportedly taught to sayprofanities by Jackson, and was said to have been removed from his funeral due to persistent cursing.[59]
"Prudle" held the Guinness World Record for many years as the bird with the largest vocabulary - a documented 800 words.[60]
"N'kisi", another grey parrot, is noted for his impressiveEnglish usage skills and other abilities. As of January 2004, he had a documented vocabulary of 950 words. N'kisi is believed to be one of the most advanced users of human language in the animal world.[61]
"Einstein" appeared on many television shows and became famous for his ability to recreate sounds as well as talking. Video clips show him making the sound of a laser beam generator and an evil-sounding laugh. He has been trained by Stephanie White.[62]
Grip was a raven kept as a pet byCharles Dickens. She knew several phrases, including "halloa, old girl",[63] and was the basis for an integral character in Dickens's novelBarnaby Rudge.[64][65] On more than one occasion, Grip's untimely utterances affect the course of the narrative. Grip was the inspiration forEdgar Allan Poe's poemThe Raven.
In the USSR, thebudgerigar Keshka was famous as a talking parrot who knew 120 words and could pronounce the full postal address of his owner (in case he flew away or got lost). Budgerigars were the most common among all parrots and other talking bird species in the USSR, kept as pets in homes and in some schools (by groups ofyoung naturalists).[66]
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Talking birds are used as a plot element in fiction, notably in many works byGabriel García Márquez.[67]
A parrot who recites numbers is integral to the plot ofThe Final Solution (novel) byMichael Chabon.
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{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)Science's best known parrot died on September 6th, aged 31
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