The Tale of Genji (源氏物語,Genji monogatari,pronounced[ɡeɲdʑimonoɡaꜜtaɾi]), also known asGenji Monogatari, is a classic work ofJapanese literature written by the noblewoman, poet, andlady-in-waitingMurasaki Shikibu around the peak of theHeian period, in the early 11th century. The original manuscript no longer exists. It was made in "concertina" ororihon style: several sheets of paper pasted together and folded alternately in one direction then the other.[1]
The work is a unique depiction of the lifestyles of highcourtiers during the Heian period. It is written in archaic language and a poetic style that requires specialised study.[2] In the early 20th centuryGenji was translated into modern Japanese by the poetAkiko Yosano. The first English translation ofGenji was made in 1882 bySuematsu Kencho, but was of poor quality and left incomplete.Arthur Waley translated an almost complete version which excludes only the 38th chapter (Suzumushi/The Bell Cricket) between 1925 to 1933. Since then, complete English translations have been made byEdward Seidensticker,Royall Tyler, andDennis Washburn.
The work recounts the life ofHikaru Genji, or "Shining Genji". Genji is the son of theemperor (known to readers as Emperor Kiritsubo) and a low-ranking concubine calledKiritsubo Consort. However, for political reasons, the emperor removes Genji from the line of succession, demoting him to commoner status by giving him the surnameMinamoto. Genji then pursues a career as an imperial officer. The tale concentrates on Genji's romantic life and describes the customs of the aristocratic society of the time. It is one of history's firstnovels, the first by a woman to have won global recognition, and in Japan today has a stature like that of Shakespeare in England.[3]
Murasaki lived at the height of theFujiwara clan's power.[4]Fujiwara no Michinaga was the regent in all but name, and the most significant political figure of his day. Consequently, Murasaki is believed to have formed the character of Genji partly through her experience of Michinaga.[5]
The Tale of Genji may have been written chapter by chapter, as Murasaki delivered installments to aristocratic women (ladies-in-waiting). It has many elements found in a modern novel: a central character and a large number of major and minor characters, well-developed characterization of the major players, a sequence of events covering the central character's lifetime and beyond. There is no specifiedplot, but events play out and characters grow older. Despite adramatis personæ of some four hundred characters, it maintains internal consistency; for instance, all characters age in step, and both family andfeudal relationships stay intact throughout.
Almost none of the characters in the original text are given an explicit name. They are instead referred to by their function or role (e.g. Minister of the Left), anhonorific (e.g. His Excellency), or their relation to other characters (e.g. Heir Apparent), which changes as the novel progresses. This lack of names stems from Heian-era court manners that would have made it unacceptably familiar and blunt to freely mention a person's given name. Modern readers and translators have used various nicknames to keep track of themany characters.
Murasaki Shikibu, illustration byTosa Mitsuoki who created a series of illustrations ofThe Tale of Genji (17th century)
There is debate over how much ofGenji was actually written by Murasaki Shikibu. Debates over the novel's authorship have gone on for centuries, and are unlikely to ever be settled unless some major archival discovery is made.
It is generally accepted that the tale was finished in its present form by 1021, when the author of theSarashina Nikki wrote a diary entry about her joy at acquiring a complete copy of the tale. She writes that there are over 50 chapters and mentions a character introduced at the end of the work, so if other authors besides Murasaki did work on the tale, the work was finished very near to the time of her writing.Murasaki's own diary includes a reference to the tale, and indeed the application to herself of the name 'Murasaki' in an allusion to the main female character. That entry confirms that some if not all of the diary was available in 1008 when internal evidence convincingly suggests that the entry was written.[6]
Murasaki is said to have written the character of Genji based on the Minister on the Left at the time she was at court. Other translators, such as Tyler, believe the character Murasaki no Ue, whom Genji marries, is based on Murasaki Shikibu herself.
Yosano Akiko, who made the first modern Japanese translation ofGenji, believed that Murasaki had written only chapters 1 to 33, and that chapters 35 to 54 were written by her daughter,Daini no Sanmi.[7] Other scholars have also doubted the authorship of chapters 42 to 54, particularly 44, which contains continuity mistakes (in the rest of the book such mistakes are rare).[7]Royall Tyler writes that computer analysis has turned up "statistically significant" discrepancies of style between chapters 45–54 and the rest, and also among the early chapters.[7]
Chapter 15 –Yomogiu (蓬生, "Waste of Weeds"). Scene from the 12th-century illustrated handscrollGenji Monogatari Emaki kept at the Tokugawa Art Museum.Chapter 16 –Sekiya (関屋, "At The Pass")Chapter 37 –Yokobue (横笛, "Flute")Chapter 39 –Yūgiri (夕霧, "Evening Mist"). 12th-century Gotoh Museum handscroll.Chapter 48 –Sawarabi (早蕨, "Bracken Shoots"). Tokugawa Art Museum's illustrated handscroll.Chapter 49 –Yadorigi (宿り木, "Ivy"). Tokugawa Art Museum's illustrated handscroll.
Genji's mother dies when he is three years old, and the Emperor cannot forget her. The Emperor Kiritsubo then hears of a woman (Lady Fujitsubo), formerly a princess of the preceding emperor, who resembles his deceased concubine, and later she becomes one of his wives. Genji loves her first as a stepmother, but later as a woman, and they fall in love with each other. Genji is frustrated by his forbidden love for the Lady Fujitsubo and is on bad terms with his own wife (Aoi no Ue, the Lady Aoi). He engages in a series of love affairs with many other women. These are however unfulfilling, as in most cases his advances are rebuffed, or his lover dies suddenly, or he becomes bored.
Genji visits Kitayama, a rural hilly area north of Kyoto, where he finds a beautiful ten-year-old girl. He is fascinated by this little girl (Murasaki no Ue), and discovers that she is a niece of the Lady Fujitsubo. Finally he kidnaps her, brings her to his own palace and educates her to be like the Lady Fujitsubo, who is his womanly ideal. During this time Genji also meets Lady Fujitsubo secretly, and she bears his son, Reizei. Everyone except the two lovers believes the father of the child is the Emperor Kiritsubo. Later the boy becomes theCrown Prince and Lady Fujitsubo becomes the Empress, but Genji and Lady Fujitsubo swear to keep the child's true parentage secret.
Genji and his wife, Lady Aoi, reconcile. She gives birth to a son but dies soon after. Genji is sorrowful but finds consolation in Murasaki, whom he marries. Genji's father, the Emperor Kiritsubo, dies. He is succeeded by his son Suzaku, whose mother (Kokiden), together with Kiritsubo's political enemies, take power in the court. Then another of Genji's secret love affairs is exposed: Genji and a concubine of the Emperor Suzaku are discovered while meeting in secret. The Emperor Suzaku confides his personal amusement at Genji's exploits with the woman (Oborozukiyo), but is duty-bound to punish Genji even though he is his half-brother. He exiles Genji to the town ofSuma in ruralHarima Province (now part ofKobe inHyōgo Prefecture). There, a prosperous man known as the Akashi Novice (because he is fromAkashi inSettsu Province) entertains Genji, and Genji has an affair with Akashi's daughter. She gives birth to Genji's only daughter, who will later become the Empress.
In the capital, the Emperor Suzaku is troubled by dreams of his late father, Kiritsubo, and something begins to affect his eyes. Meanwhile, his mother, Kokiden, grows ill, which weakens her influence over the throne, and leads to the Emperor ordering Genji to be pardoned. Genji returns to Kyoto. His son by Lady Fujitsubo, Reizei, becomes the emperor. The new Emperor Reizei knows Genji is his real father, and raises Genji's rank to the highest possible.
However, when Genji turns 40 years old, his life begins to decline. His political status does not change, but his love and emotional life begin to incrementally diminish as middle age takes hold. He marries another wife,the Third Princess (known as Onna san no miya in the Seidensticker version, or Nyōsan in Waley's). Genji's nephew, Kashiwagi, later forces himself on the Third Princess, and she bearsKaoru (who, in a similar situation to that of Reizei, is legally known as the son of Genji). Genji's new marriage changes his relationship with Murasaki, who had expressed her wish of becoming a nun (bikuni) though the wish was rejected by Genji.
Genji's beloved Murasaki dies. In the following chapter,Maboroshi ("Illusion"), Genji contemplates how fleeting life is. The next chapter is titledKumogakure ("Vanished into the Clouds"), which is left blank, but implies the death of Genji.
Chapter 45–54 are known as the "Uji Chapters". These chapters follow Kaoru and his best friend, Niou. Niou is an imperial prince, the son of Genji's daughter, the current Empress now that Reizei has abdicated the throne, while Kaoru is known to the world as Genji's son but is in fact fathered by Genji's nephew. The chapters involve Kaoru and Niou's rivalry over several daughters of an imperial prince who lives inUji, a place some distance away from the capital. The tale ends abruptly, with Kaoru wondering if Niou is hiding Kaoru's former lover away from him. Kaoru has sometimes been called the firstanti-hero in literature.[8]
The tale has an abrupt ending. Opinions vary on whether this was intended by the author.Arthur Waley, who made the first English translation of the whole ofThe Tale of Genji, believed that the work as we have it was finished.Ivan Morris, however, author ofThe World of the Shining Prince, believed that it was not complete and that later chapters were missing.Edward Seidensticker, who made the second translation of theGenji, believed that Murasaki Shikibu had not had a planned story structure with an ending as such but would simply have continued writing as long as she could.
Because it was written to entertain the Japanese court of the 11th century, the work presents many difficulties to modern readers. First and foremost, Murasaki's language, Heian-period court Japanese, was highly inflected and had very complex grammar.[9][10] Another problem is that almost none of the characters are named within the work. Instead, the narrator refers to men often by their rank or their station in life, and to women often by the color of their clothing, or by the words used at a meeting, or by the rank of a prominent male relative. This results in different appellations for the same character, depending on the chapter.
Another aspect of the language is the importance of usingpoetry in conversations.[11] Modifying or rephrasing a classic poem according to the current situation was expected behavior in Heian court life, and often served to communicate thinly veiled allusions. The poems in theGenji are often in the classic Japanesetanka form. Many of the poems were well known to the intended audience, so usually only the first few lines are given, and the reader is supposed to complete the thought themselves, leaving the rest – which the reader would be expected to know – unspoken.
As with most literature in the Heian period,Genji was written mostly inkana (Japanese phonetic script), specificallyhiragana, and not inkanji.[12] Writing in kanji was at the time a masculine pursuit.[13][14] Women were generally discreet when using kanji, confining themselves mostly to native Japanese words (yamato kotoba).
Outside of vocabulary related to politics and Buddhism,Genji contains remarkably few Chinese loan words (kango). This has the effect of giving the story a very even smooth flow. However it also introduces confusion: there are a number ofhomophones (words with the same pronunciation but different meanings); and for modern readers context is not always sufficient to determine which meaning was intended.
The novel is traditionally divided into three parts, the first two dealing with the life of Genji and the last with the early years of two of Genji's prominent descendants, Niou and Kaoru. There are also several short transitional chapters which are usually grouped separately and whose authorships are sometimes questioned.
Genji's rise and fall
Youth, chapters 1–33: Love, romance, and exile
Success and setbacks, chapters 34–41: A taste of power and the death of his beloved wife
The transition (chapters 42–44): Very short episodes following Genji's death
Uji, chapters 45–54: Genji's official and secret descendants, Niou and Kaoru
The 54th and last chapter, "The Floating Bridge of Dreams", is sometimes argued by modern scholars to be a separate part from the Uji part. It seems to continue the story from the previous chapters but has an unusually abstract chapter title. It is the only chapter whose title has no clear reference within the text, although this may be due to the chapter being unfinished. This question is made more difficult by the fact that we do not know exactly when the chapters acquired their titles.
The English translations here are taken from theArthur Waley, theEdward Seidensticker, theRoyall Tyler, and theDennis Washburn translations. It is not known for certain when the chapters acquired their titles. Early mentions of the Tale refer to chapter numbers, or contain alternate titles for some of the chapters. This may suggest that the titles were added later. The titles are largely derived from poetry that is quoted within the text, or allusions to various characters.
Chapter 5 –Wakamurasaki (若紫, "Young Murasaki"). Tosa Mitsuoki, 1617–91.Chapter 20 –Asagao (朝顔, "The Bluebell"). Tosa Mitsuoki.Chapter 42 –Niō no Miya (匂宮, "The Perfumed Prince"). Tosa Mitsuoki.Chapter 50 –Azumaya (東屋, "Eastern Cottage"). 12th-century Tokugawa Art Museum handscroll.
The additional chapter between 41 and 42 in some manuscripts is calledKumogakure (雲隠) which means "Vanished into the Clouds"—the chapter is a title only, and is probably intended to evoke Genji's death. Some scholars have posited the earlier existence of a chapter between 1 and 2 which would have introduced some characters that seem to appear very abruptly in the book as it stands.
The Waley translation completely omits the 38th chapter.
Later authors have composed additional chapters, most often either between 41 and 42, or after the end.
The Supernatural and Spirituality in The Tale of Genji
The Tale of Genji contains many supernatural elements and Buddhist themes which are characteristic of the Heian period. The Heian aristocrats lived alongside spirits, omens, and karma were a part of people’s lives.
One of the most significant supernatural aspects of the novel is the possession of Lady Aoi by the spirit of the Rokujō Lady who was jealous and wanted to take her revenge. This incident corresponds to the Heian ideas of mono no ke, the spirits of the dead who could torment the living, and the spirits were said to appear when the person was overcome by strong feelings (Shirane 2008). The Rokujō Lady, a woman who was once proud and powerful, is heartbroken by Genji’s neglect. Genji believes that The Rokujō Lady’s anger and despair was forced onto Aoi, turning into a spirit that leads to Aoi’s death. Her spirit returns in later chapters like in The Barrier Gate as a lingering reminder of the harm jealousy and resentment can cause and manifest into.
The possession scene is not only significant in terms of the story of the novel but also demonstrates the psychological effects of uncontrollable, internalized emotions in a culture where women had no say. The idea that emotions could take on a supernatural form in the Heian belief system seems to indicate an understanding of the power of inner thoughts and feelings from a cultural point of view.
A sort of cleansing for wrongdoings seems to be a common theme seen throughout the story. In chapter 12 ofThe Tale of Genji, Genji sends himself into exile at Suma after he feels he deserves consequences of his actions. His affair with Fujitsubo and the birth of an illegitimate son and Oborozukiyo, were key reasons for his exile. Interestingly, Genji exiling himself prevented others from exiling him, as he sent himself to Suma, not too far away from the capital.
Although his exile is attributed to the strife at court, it gives him a way to step back from the impact of the actions he has taken without having to deal with the moral repercussions of those actions. He is taken away from the capital and his authority is taken from him, and he is left to think. Unlike all the women in the story who have to become nuns for the rest of their lives in order to repent for their sins, Genji’s exile is not permanent. Two years later, he is able to return to the capital after a storm he believed was calling him. This indicates that for males, exile can be a period of atonement and a way of coming back to the world instead of being expelled from it, as is the case with women.
Characters like Fujitsubo and Lady Rokujō flee permanently from the world through religious vows, using this opportunity to free themselves from the sins they have committed. The feeling of guilt overwhelms Fujitsubo, who has sinned by engaging in an affair with Genji and has tried to cover up the fact that her son is the heir to the throne. Fujitsubo’s exit is final as she removes her attachment with the world. Similarly, Lady Rokujō does not really take vows, but she is eaten up with envy and regret, and decides to leave the courtlife behind. Fujitsubo and Lady Rokujō’s stories show the distinction between how women handle ethical failures in Heian society.
The original manuscript written by Murasaki Shikibu no longer exists. Numerous copies, totaling around 300 according to Ikeda Kikan, exist with differences between each. It is thought that Shikibu often went back and edited early manuscripts introducing discrepancies with earlier copies.[15]
The various manuscripts are classified into three categories:[16][17]
Kawachibon (河内本)
Aobyōshibon (青表紙本)
Beppon (別本)
In the 13th century, two major attempts by Minamoto no Chikayuki andFujiwara Teika were made to edit and revise the differing manuscripts. The Chikayuki manuscript is known as theKawachibon; edits were many beginning in 1236 and completing in 1255. The Teika manuscript is known as theAobyōshibon; its edits are more conservative and thought to better represent the original. These two manuscripts were used as the basis for many future copies.
TheBeppon category represents all other manuscripts not belonging to eitherKawachibon orAobyōshibon. This includes older but incomplete manuscripts, mixed manuscripts derived from bothKawachibon andAobyōshibon, and commentaries.
On 10 March 2008, it was announced that a lateKamakura period (1192–1333) manuscript had been found in Kyoto,[18][19] containing the sixth chapter,Suetsumuhana; the manuscript was 65 pages in length. Most remaining manuscripts are based on copies of the Teika manuscript which introduced revisions in the original; this manuscript, however, belongs to a different lineage and was not influenced by Teika. Professor Yamamoto Tokurō, who examined the manuscript, said, "This is a precious discovery as Kamakura manuscripts are so rare." Professor Katō Yōsuke said, "This is an important discovery as it asserts that non-Teika manuscripts were being read during the Kamakura period."
On 29 October 2008,Konan Women's University announced that a mid-Kamakura period manuscript had been found,[20][21][22]containing the 32nd chapter,Umegae. The manuscript was recognized as the oldest extant copy of this chapter, dating to between 1240 and 1280. The manuscript, considered to be of theBeppon category, is 74 pages in length and differs fromAobyōshi manuscripts in at least four places, raising the "possibility that the contents may be closer to the undiscovered Murasaki Shikibu original manuscript".[20]
On 9 October 2019, it was announced that an original copy of Teika'sAobyōshibon had been found in Tokyo at the home of the current head of theOkochi-Matsudaira clan, who ran theYoshida Domain. The manuscript is the 5th chapter,Wakamurasaki (若紫), and is the oldest version of the chapter. Blue ink common in Teika's manuscript and handwriting analysis confirmed that the manuscript was written by Teika, making it among the 5 original versions of theAobyōshibon known to exist.[23]
Late-16th- or early-17th-century hanging scroll in ink and gold leaf illustrating a scene fromGenji
Numerous illustrations of scenes fromGenji have been produced, most notably a 12th-century scroll, theGenji Monogatari Emaki, containing illustrated scenes fromGenji together with handwrittensōgana text. This scroll is the earliest extant example of a Japanese "picture scroll": collected illustrations and calligraphy of a single work. The original scroll is believed to have comprised 10–20 rolls and covered all 54 chapters. The extant pieces include only 19 illustrations and 65 pages of text, plus nine pages of fragments. This is estimated at 15% of the envisioned original.
TheTokugawa Art Museum inNagoya has three of the scrolls handed down in theOwari branch of theTokugawa clan and one scroll held by the Hachisuka family is now in theGotoh Museum in Tokyo. The scrolls are designatedNational Treasures of Japan. The scrolls are so fragile that they normally are not shown in public. The original scrolls in the Tokugawa Museum were shown from 21 November to 29 November in 2009. Since 2001, they have been displayed in the Tokugawa Museum annually for around one week in November. An oversize English photoreproduction and translation was published in limited edition in 1971 byKodansha International.[24]
Other notable illustrated scrolls ofGenji are byTosa Mitsuoki, who lived from 1617 to 1691. His paintings are closely based on Heian style from the existing scrolls from the 12th century and are fully complete. The tale was also a popular theme inukiyo-e prints from theEdo period.
Tō no Chūjō and Genji have a very complex relationship throughout the story, especially in relationships with women. They have been around each other for the entire story and grow up together. The Rainy Night Critique is a key moment between the two men as they discuss what the ideal woman is, which gives the reader insight into how these two characters view love and courtship. Tō no Chūjō is the embodiment of the conventional male aristocrat, while Genji is often something of a rebel, looking for love that goes beyond the political. Their friendship is shown in parts of the story like when Tō no Chūjō visits Genji in Suma. However, readers can tell that there is a rivalry between the two which is over rank and prestige. Tō no Chūjō seems to be jealous of Genji with his good looks, charisma, and power he possesses.
Genji and Murasaki:
Murasaki is one of the important women in Genji’s life; however, their relationship is also very complex. Genji meets Wakamuraksaki at a very young age, she is ten years younger than Genji and he grooms her to be his wife. Wakamurasaki is Genji’s second wife following the death of Aoi. Their relationship reveals the Heian court society and values in which women had almost no say. Murasaki and Genji grew closer as they grew older with Muraskai showing her emotions towards him especially during Genji’s exile. She was miserable when he was unfaithful to her which ultimately led to her death. Her story is significant because it shows how romantic relationships in the Heian court worked.
Genji and Fujitsubo:
The relationship between Genji and Fujitsubo, his stepmother, is one of many relationships throughout the story that is disturbing. Their secret affair ends up in the birth of an imperial prince, Emperor Reizei who becomes the future emperor. This relationship reveals Genji’s impulsive and careless nature but also could become a major problem if people found out the child was not of the emperor himself because it controlled political power.
This affair led to Fujitsubo taking affairs in order to protect herself, Genji, and more importantly her child. Fujitubo had much guilt and regret while Genji seemed more carefree towards the affair, again showing the gender imbalance in Heian Japan especially in love affairs.
The Rokujō Lady is one of the most interesting characters in the novel from a spiritual point of view. She is one of the many ladies that Genji is seeing. In chapter 9 of the tale, she realizes her position in Genji’s life when her carriage is ignored and pushed aside to make room for Genji’s wife, Aoi at the Kamo festival. The Rokujō Lady returns throughout the story as her jealous spirit lingers and attacks and kills Lady Aoi. Her spirit comes back later in the story as a reminder or jealousy. The supernatural element of her jealousy shows how much a character can be consumed by anger and how it can lead to supernatural occurrences in the story that represent the consequences of love and status.
Pages from the illustrated handscroll from the 12th century
The Tale of Genji was written in an archaic court language, and a century after its completion it was difficult to read without specialized study. Annotated and illustrated versions existed as early as the 12th century.[25] It was not until the early 20th century thatGenji was translated into modern Japanese by the poetAkiko Yosano.[26]Translations into modern Japanese have made it easier to read though changed some meaning, and has given names to the characters, usually the traditional names used by academics. This gives rise toanachronisms; for instance, Genji's first wife is named Aoi because she is known as the lady of the Aoi chapter, in which she dies.
Because of the cultural differences, reading an annotated version of theGenji is quite common, even among Japanese readers. There are several annotated versions by novelists, includingSeiko Tanabe,Jakucho Setouchi and Osamu Hashimoto.[27] Many works, including amanga series and different television dramas, are derived fromThe Tale of Genji. There have been at least five manga adaptations ofGenji.[28] A manga version was created byWaki Yamato,Asakiyumemishi (The Tale of Genji in English), and a current version by Sugimura Yoshimitsu[29][better source needed] is in progress. Another manga,Genji Monogatari, by Miyako Maki, won theShogakukan Manga Award in 1989.[30]
The first partial translation ofGenji into English was bySuematsu Kenchō, published in 1882.Arthur Waley published a six-volume translation of all but one chapter, with the first volume published in 1925 and the last in 1933.[31] In 1976,Edward Seidensticker published the first complete translation into English, made using a self-consciously "stricter" approach with regards to content if not form.[32] The English translation published in 2001 byRoyall Tyler aims at fidelity in content and form to the original text.[7][33]
The major translations into English are each slightly different, mirroring the personal choices of the translator and the period in which the translation was made. Each version has its merits, its detractors and its advocates, and each is distinguished by the name of the translator. For example, the version translated byArthur Waley would typically be referred to as "the WaleyGenji".
The SuematsuGenji (1882) – Suematsu'sGenji was the first translation into English, but is considered of poor quality and is not often read today.[34] It includes seventeen of the chapters.[35]
The WaleyGenji (1925–1933) – Waley'sGenji is considered a great achievement for his time,[36] although some purists have criticized Waley's changes to the original.[37] Others have criticized as overly-free the manner in which Waley translated the original text. Regardless, it continues to be well-appreciated and widely read today.[38] When the WaleyGenji was first published, it was eagerly received. For example,Time explained that "the reviewers' floundering tributes indicate something of its variegated appeal. In limpid prose The Tale combines curiously modern social satire with great charm of narrative. Translator Waley has done service to literature in salvaging to the Occident this masterpiece of the Orient."[39] The translation omits the 38th chapter completely.[why?]
The SeidenstickerGenji (1976) – Seidensticker'sGenji is an attempt to correct what were perceived to have been Waley's failings without necessarily making his translation obsolete. Seidensticker hews more closely to the original text, but in the interests of readability, he takes some liberties. For example, he identifies most of the characters by name so that the narrative can be more easily followed by a broad-based audience of Western readers. (In 2008, a 4,400-pageBraille version of the SeidenstickerGenji was completed. This Braille edition was the product of five Japanese housewives fromSetagaya, Tokyo, working voluntarily for five years and was subsequently donated to the Japan Braille Library (日本点字図書館) and theLibrary of Congress. It is also available for download.)[40]
The McCulloughGenji (1994) – A selection from ten chapters ofThe Tale of Genji along with selections fromThe Tale of the Heike, translated by Helen Craig McCullough for Stanford University Press.
The TylerGenji (2001) – Tyler'sGenji contains more extensive explanatory footnotes and commentary than the previous translations, describing the numerous poetical allusions and cultural aspects of the tale. Tyler consciously attempted to mimic the original style in ways that the previous translations did not. For example, this version does not use names for most characters, identifying them instead by their titles in a manner which was conventional in the context of the 11th-century original text. Writing forThe New York Times, reviewerJanice Nimura described it as "wonderfully evocative of the original, [but] can be difficult to follow".[41] According to Michael Wood, Tyler's version "makes a special virtue of attending to a certain ceremonial indirectness in the way the characters address one another. The great temptation for a translator is to say the unsaid things, and Tyler never gives in to it."[42] Machiko Midorikawa notes in a review of Genji translations that more recent translators from classical Japanese "have endeavoured to find ways of preserving more of what once seemed unfamiliar or strange to English readers".[43]
The WashburnGenji (2015) – Dennis Washburn'sGenji separates the poems from the prose and puts interior thoughts in italics. The translation has been received slightly more controversially than Tyler's, with most criticism aimed at the perceived over-clarification of the text and addition of modern colloquialisms.[44]
The Tale of Genji has been translated by many people throughout the years which all give their own perspectives and touch. Some of the most notable translations are:
Arthur Waley (1925-1933): The first full English translation that includes romantic and lyrical value, Text has been altered substantially, loses philosophical and political statements
Edward Seidensticker (1976): A more literal translation than Waley’s, Good balance between literary fidelity and historical accuracy, More accessible to the modern reader
Royall Tyler (2001): Maintains the novel’s intricate structure and courtly nuances, Footnotes than ever to explain Heian customs
Dennis Washburn (2015): Concentrates on the psychological depth, preserving the intricate structure of characters and characters of the novel , language is made contemporary for the present readers
Each translation represents the shifting scholarly perspectives on Heian literature, and the translation philosophy of Murasaki Shikibu taken by the translator.[45]
Manga and Visual Adaptations:
There have also been manga Adaptations The Tale of Genji. One of the most famous manga adaptations is Waki Yamato’s Fleeting Dreams or Asaki Yume Mishi, which features the romantic and aesthetic parts of the novel in visually engaging illustrations that are consistent with shoujo manga aesthetics. Whereas textual versions of the work depend heavily on words to create emotional impact, expressions, and a sense of the Heian court, manga adaptations help make the tale more accessible for all ages but risks simplifying the story.[46]
The Tale of Genji is an important work of world literature.Jorge Luis Borges is among the modern authors who have cited it as inspiration. He said of it, "The Tale of Genji, as translated byArthur Waley, is written with an almost miraculous naturalness, and what interests us is not the exoticism—the horrible word—but rather the human passions of the novel. Such interest is just: Murasaki's work is what one would quite precisely call apsychological novel ... I dare to recommend this book to those who read me. "[47] It is noted for its internal consistency, psychological depiction, and characterization. The novelistYasunari Kawabata said in hisNobel Prize acceptance speech: "The Tale of Genji in particular is the highest pinnacle of Japanese literature. Even down to our day there has not been a piece of fiction to compare with it."
2000 yen note withThe Tale of Genji and Murasaki Shikibu on the right corner
TheGenji is also often referred to as "the first novel",[48] though there is considerable debate over this; other texts that predateGenji, such as the 7th-centurySanskritKādambari, or the Greek and Roman novels from classical antiquity, such asDaphnis and Chloe and theSatyricon, are considered to be novels, and there is debate around whetherGenji can even be considered a "novel". Ivan Morris considers the psychological insight, complexity and unity of the work to qualify it for "novel" status while simultaneously disqualifying earlier works of prose fiction.[49] Others[who?] see these arguments as subjective and unconvincing.
Related claims, perhaps in an attempt to sidestep these debates, are thatGenji is the "first psychological novel" or "historical novel",[50] "the first novel still considered to be a classic" or other more qualified terms. However, critics have almost consistently describedThe Tale of Genji as the oldest, first, and/or greatest novel in Japanese literature,[51][52] though enthusiastic proponents may have later neglected the qualifying category of 'in Japanese literature', leading to the debates over the book's place in world literature. Even in Japan, the status ofTale of Genji as "first" is not universally embraced; the slightly-earlierOchikubo Monogatari has been proposed as the "world's first full-length novel", even though its author is unknown.[53] Despite these debates,The Tale of Genji enjoys solid respect, and its influence on Japanese literature has been compared to that ofPhilip Sidney'sArcadia on English literature.[51]
The novel and other works by Lady Murasaki are staple reading material in the curricula of Japanese schools. The Bank of Japan issued the 2000yen banknote in her honor, featuring a scene from the novel based on the 12th-century illustrated handscroll. Since a 1 November 1008 entry inThe Diary of Lady Murasaki is the oldest date on which a reference toThe Tale of Genji has appeared, 1 November was designated as the official day to celebrate Japanese classics. According to Act onClassics Day, the "classics" that are honored not only include literature, but encompass a wide range of arts such as music, art, traditional performing arts, entertainment, lifestyle art including tea ceremony and flower arrangement and other cultural products.[54]
The names of the chapters became a central element in a incense-based game called Genjikō, part of the larger practice ofMonkō popular among the nobility. In Genjikō, players must match the scents of a series of five incense samples without being told the names of said samples. Each possible combination was matched to a symbol, called agenji-mon, that represented a chapter from the story.[55]
1987 anime filmThe Tale of Genji byGisaburō Sugii – covers only the first 12 chapters, while adding in some psychological motivation that is not explicit in the novel.
2015 theatre performance run by the Takarazuka Revue; actress Asumi Rio received the Agency for Cultural Affairs Arts Festival award for her portrayal of Genji.
^The Diary of Lady Murasaki, ed.Richard Bowring, Penguin Classics 2005, p. 31, note 41. In his introduction to the text, Bowring discusses its dating which, in any case, is generally accepted by most authorities. Royall Tyler, in his edition of theTale of Genji cited below, also draws attention to the entry in Murasaki Shikibu's diary: see the Penguin Books edition, 2003, Introduction, p. xvii
^abcdShikibu, Murasaki; Tyler, Royall (2002).The Tale of Genji. Viking.
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