Established during theVedic period, Old Taxila was for a time the capital city ofancient Gandhāra. It was situated on the eastern shore of theIndus River—the pivotal junction of theIndian subcontinent andCentral Asia;[3] it was possibly founded around 1000 BCE. Takshashila andPushkalavati remained prominent cities in Ghandhāra during theMahajanapadas.The city was laterconquered of theAchaemenid Empire's and incorporated into theHindush satrap, between 550 – 326 BCE. In 326 BCE, the city was claimed byAlexander the Great, after overthrowing the Achaemenids, who gained control of the city without a battle since the city was immediately surrendered to theMacedonian Empire. This was followed successively by theMauryans (~317 – ~200 BCE), theIndo-Greeks (~200 BCE – ~55 BCE), theIndo-Scythians (~80 BCE – ~30 CE), and theKushan Empire (~ 30 CE – ~375 CE), who destroyed the existing city, in the first century CE, to build their own on a site to the north of the ruins.[4] Owing to its strategic location, Taxila has changed hands many times over the centuries, with many polities vying for its control. When the great ancient trade routes connecting these regions ceased to be important, the city sank into insignificance and was finally destroyed in the 5th century by the invadingHunas. In mid-19th centuryBritish India, ancient Taxila's ruins were rediscovered by British archaeologistAlexander Cunningham and extensively excavated bySir John Marshall. In 1980,UNESCO designated Taxila as aWorld Heritage Site.[5]
By some accounts, theUniversity of ancient Taxila is considered to be one of the earliest universities or education centre in South Asia.[6][7][8][9][10] Other scholars do not consider it to have been a university in the modern sense, in that the teachers living there may not have had official membership of particular colleges, and there did not seem to have existed purpose-built lecture halls and residential quarters in the city. In a 2010 report, theGlobal Heritage Fund identified Taxila as one of 12 worldwide sites that were "on the verge" of irreparable loss and damage, citing insufficient management, development pressure, looting, and armed conflict as primary threats.[11] However, significant preservation efforts have since been carried out by thePakistani government, which has resulted in the site's recategorization as "well-preserved" by different international publications.[12] Because of the extensive preservation efforts and upkeep, Taxila is one ofPunjab's popular tourist spots, attracting up to one million tourists every year.[12][13]
The name for the city of Taxila (PāliBrahmi:𑀢𑀔𑁆𑀔𑀲𑀺𑀮𑀸,Takhkhasilā), as it appears on theHeliodorus Pillar inscription, circa 100 BCE[14]
In ancient times, Taxila was known asTakṣaśilā inSanskrit (perIAST) and asTakkhasilā inPali. The city's Sanskrit name translates to "City of Cut Stone" or "Rock of Taksha" in reference to a story in theRamayana that states that the city was founded byBharata, the younger brother of theHindu deityRama, and named in honour of Bharata's son, Taksha.[15]
The city's modern name, however, is derived from theancient Greek rendering[15][16] noted inPtolemy'sGeography.[17] The Greek-language transcription ofTaxila became universally favoured over time, and both the Sanskrit and Pali names fell out of use.
Faxian, aChinese Buddhist pilgrim who visited the city via theSilk Road, had given its name's meaning as "cut-off head". With the help of aJataka, he had interpreted it to be the place whereGautama Buddha—during a previous birth asPusa orChandaprabha—cut off his head to feed a hungry lion. This tradition still persists with the area in front ofSirkap (also meaning "cut-off head"), which was known in the 19th century asBabur Khana ('House of Tiger'), alluding to the place whereGautama Buddha had offered his head. In addition, a hill range to south of the Taxila Valley is calledMargala (lit.'cut-off throat').[18]
In Vedic texts such as theShatapatha Brahmana, it is mentioned that the Vedic philosopherUddalaka Aruni (c. 7th century BCE) had travelled to the region of Gandhara. In later Buddhist texts, the 4th - 3rd century BCEJatakas, it is specified that Taxila was the city where Aruni and his sonShvetaketu each had received their education.[19]
One of the earliest mentions of Taxila is inPāṇini'sAṣṭādhyāyī,[20] a Sanskrit grammar treatise dated to the 4th century BCE.
Much of the Hindu epic, theMahabharata, is a conversation betweenVaishampayana (a pupil of the sage,Vyasa) and KingJanamejaya. It is traditionally believed that the story was first recited by Vaishampayana at the behest of Vyasa during the snake sacrifice performed by Janamejaya at Takshashila.[15] The audience also includedUgrashravas, an itinerant bard, who would later recite the story to a group of priests at anashram in theNaimisha Forest from where the story was further disseminated.[21] TheKuru Kingdom's heir,Parikshit (grandson of Arjuna) is said to have been enthroned at Takshashila.[22]
The Ramayana describes Takshashila as a magnificent city famed for its wealth which was founded by Bharata, the younger brother ofRama. Bharata, who also founded nearbyPushkalavati, installed his two sons, Taksha and Pushkala, as the rulers of the two cities.[23]
In the Buddhist Jatakas, Taxila is described as the capital of the kingdom of Gandhara and a great centre of learning with world-famous teachers.[15] The Jatakas mention non-Buddhist institutions and teachers in Taxila. They show the predominance ofVedic and technical disciplines including law, medicine, and military science.[24] The Takkasila Jataka, more commonly known as the Telapatta Jataka, tells the tale of a prince ofBenares who is told that he would become the king of Takkasila if he could reach the city within seven days without falling prey to theyakshinis who waylaid travellers in the forest.[25][26] According to theDipavamsa, one of Taxila's early kings was aKshatriya named Dipankara who was succeeded by twelve sons and grandsons.Kuñjakarṇa, mentioned in theAvadanakalpalata, is another king associated with the city.[23]
As per canonicalŚvetāmbaraJaina textsĀvaśyaka Cūrṇi andĀvaśyaka Niryukti,TirthankaraRishabhanatha visited Takshashila while wandering after initiation as a monk millions of years ago. Upon learning of his arrival,Bahubali, who was not in the city at that moment, rushed to the city, but the Rishabhanatha had already departed before Bahubali arrived.[28] His footprints were subsequently consecrated by Bahubali who erected a throne and adharmachakra ('wheel of the law') over them several miles in height and circumference.[23] The 14th centuryVividha Tirtha Kalpa mentions this establishment, stating:[29]
As per the canonical Jaina textMahanishith Sutra, theDharmachakra Tirtha established by Bahubali is recognized as the abode ofChandraprabha, and Takshashila is also referred to as"Dharmachakra Bhumi," marking its significance as a center ofJainism.[30]
While there is limited information about the subsequent period, it is noted that during the medieval era, Takshashila faced challenges due to the proliferation of fraudulent ascetics and a lack of proper sustenance, leading to restrictions onJaina ascetics' wandering in the region, as documented in six ancient Jaina texts known as theChedasūtras.[30]
Emperor Samprati built a Jaina temple known as"Kunala Stupa" in honor of his fatherKunala. During Samprati's rule, the extent of the wandering of Jaina monks developed multifold times, and later also included this region.[31]
According to thePrabhavakacharita, by the second to third century CE, there were approximately 500 Jaina temples in Takshashila, and it was occupied by a significant number of Jainas. However, a devastatingplague struck the city, leading to widespread death and chaos.[32] The Jaina community sent aSravaka named Virchand toNadol, who conveyed their suffering to Acharya Manadevasuri. Suri gave "Laghu Shanti Stava," stating that reciting it would alleviate the plague. Following the recitation, the plague subsided within a few days. However, in the third year, the Turks devastated the city.[33]
According to Acharya Dhaneswarasuri's "Shatrunjaya Mahatmya," Javad Shah, a merchant from Mahuva, renovatedPalitana temples inVikrama Samvat 108. He retrieved an image ofRishabhanatha from Takshashila and established it as the principal deity at the principal shrine amongst Shatrunjaya temples.[34]
Excavations in Takshashila support these traditions. Dr. Sir John Marshall noted that Indo-Greek kings displaced the city from its fortified position and settled it inSirkap during the early years of the second century BCE. The city remained inhabited through theGreek,Shaka,Pahlava, andKushan periods. Numerous small and large temples have been discovered along the main road of Sirkap. Dr. Marshall concluded that the temples in blocks 'F' and 'G' of Sirkap are Jaina temples due to their architectural similarities withKankali Tila, a Jaina stupa, found inMathura.[23] In block 'G,' located on the right side of the main road, numerous ruins of large buildings have been found, characterized by the presence of small temples alongside these structures, which were accessible to devotees. This evidence strongly supports claims by the Jaina tradition that Takshashila was a significant center forJainism.[23]
The region around Taxila was settled by theNeolithic era, with some ruins at Taxila dating to 1000 BCE.[35][36] Ruins dating from the Early Harappan period around 1300 BCE[35] have also been discovered in the Taxila area,[36] though the area was eventually abandoned after the collapse of the Indus Valley civilisation.
The earliest settled occupation in Taxila Valley was found atSarai Khola, located 2 km to the south-west ofTaxila Museum, where three radiocarbon dates from Period I suggest the site was first occupied between the late 4th and early 3rd millennium BCE, with deposits of polished stone celts, chert blades and a distinctive type of highly burnished pottery that shows clear signs of the use of woven baskets in the manufacturing process and the application of a slurry to the exterior surface.[37]
Periods IA and II at Sarai Khola seem to show continuity from Period I, with the appearance of red burnished wares. However,Kot Diji-style wares were found in greater numbers, and the Kot Diji-style forms show signs of having been wheel-thrown, marking a clear technological change from the Period I material. Seven radiocarbon dates were also taken from the earlier and later Period II/Kot Diji, and seem to show this phase dates from the mid-late 3rd to early 2nd millennium BCE.[37]
Gandhara was an ancientIndo-Aryankingdom of westernSouth Asia whose existence was attested during theIron Age. The capital of the kingdom was in Taxila. The first major settlement at Taxila, inHathial mound, was established around 1000 BCE.[38][4][39] By 900 BCE, the city was already involved in regional commerce, as the discovered pottery shards reveal trading ties between the city andPuṣkalāvatī.[40]
Later, Taxila was inhabited atBhir Mound, dated to some time around the period 800-525 BCE with these early layers bearing grooved red burnished ware.[41]
Archaeological excavations show that the city may have grown significantly during the rule of the PersianAchaemenid Empire in the 6th century BCE. In 516 BCE,Darius I embarked on a campaign to conquerCentral Asia,Ariana andBactria, before marching onto what is nowAfghanistan and northern Pakistan. Emperor Darius spent the winter of 516-515 BCE in the Gandhara region surrounding Taxila, and prepared to conquer theIndus Valley, which he did in 515 BCE,[42] after which he appointedScylax of Caryanda to explore theIndian Ocean from the mouth of the Indus to theSuez. Darius then returned toPersia via theBolan Pass. The region continued under Achaemenid suzerainty under the reign of Xerxes I, and continued under Achaemenid rule for over a century.[43]
Taxila was sometimes ruled as part of the Gandhara kingdom (whose capital was Pushkalavati), particularly after the Achaemenid period, but Taxila sometimes formed its own independent district or city-state.[44][45]
During his invasion of theIndus Valley,Alexander the Great was able to gain control of Taxila (Ancient Greek:Τάξιλα)[46] in 326 BCE without a battle, as the city was surrendered by its ruler, kingOmphis (Āmbhi).[43] Greek historians accompanying Alexander described Taxila as "wealthy, prosperous, and well governed".[43]Arrian writes that Alexander was welcomed by the citizens of the city, and he offered sacrifices and celebrated a gymnastic and equestrian contest there.[47]
On Alexander's death, in 323 BCE, the province and much of the once Achaemenid territories would pass to his generalSeleucus I Nicator and founder of the successorSeleucid Empire.
By 303 BCE, theSeleucid Empire'ssatraps in South Asia had been formally annexed by the expanding Mauryan empire, following theSeleucid–Mauryan war,[48] with the provincial capital and center of higher education at Taxila under the control ofChandragupta Maurya. His advisor,Kautilya/Chanakya, was said to have taught at Taxila's university.[49] Under the reign ofAshoka the Great, Chandragupta's grandson, the city was made a great seat of Buddhist learning, though the city was home to a minor rebellion during this time.[50]
Taxila was founded in a strategic location along the ancient"Royal Highway" that connected the Mauryan capital atPataliputra inBihar, with ancient Peshawar, Puṣkalāvatī, and onwards towards Central Asia viaKashmir, Bactria, andKāpiśa.[51] Taxila thus changed hands many times over the centuries, with many empires vying for its control.
Indo-Greek, Indo-Scythian, and Indo-Parthian Kingdoms
In the 2nd century BCE, Taxila was annexed by theIndo-Greek kingdom ofBactria. Indo-Greeks built a new capital, Sirkap, on the opposite bank of the river from Taxila.[52] During this new period of Bactrian Greek rule, several dynasties (likeAntialcidas) likely ruled from the city as their capital. During lulls in Greek rule, the city managed profitably on its own, to independently control several local trade guilds, who also minted most of the city's autonomous coinage. In about the 1st century BCE or 1st century CE, anIndo-Scythian king namedAzilises had three mints, one of which was at Taxila, and struck coins with obverse legends in Greek andKharoṣṭhī.
The last Greek king of Taxila was overthrown by the Indo-Scythian chiefMaues around 90 BCE.[53]Gondophares, founder of theIndo-Parthian Kingdom, conquered Taxila around 20 BCE, and made Taxila his capital.[54] According to early Christian legend,Thomas the Apostle visited Gondophares IV around 46 CE,[55] possibly at Taxila given that city was Gondophares' capital city.
Around the year 50 CE, the GreekNeopythagorean philosopherApollonius of Tyana allegedly visited Taxila, which was described by his biographer,Philostratus, writing some 200 years later, as a fortified city laid out on a symmetrical plan, similar in size toNineveh. Modern archaeology confirms this description.[56] Inscriptions dating to 76 CE demonstrate that the city had come underKushan rule by that time, after the city was captured from theParthians byKujula Kadphises, founder of theKushan Empire.[57] The great Kushan rulerKanishka later foundedSirsukh, the most recent of the ancient settlements at Taxila.
In the mid-fourth century CE, the Gupta Empire occupied the territories in Eastern Gandhara, establishing a Kumaratya's post at Taxila. The city became well known for its trade links, including silk, sandalwood, horses, cotton, silverware, pearls, and spices. It is during this time that the city heavily features in classical Indian literature – both as a centre of culture as well as a militarised border city.[58][59]
Taxila's university remained in existence during the travels of Chinese pilgrim Faxian, who visited Taxila around 400 CE.[60] He wrote that Taxila's name translated as "the Severed Head", and was the site of a story in the life of Buddha "where he gave his head to a man".[61]
TheWhite Huns andAlchon Huns swept overGandhāra andPunjab around 470 CE, causing widespread devastation and destruction of Taxila's famous Buddhist monasteries andstupas, a blow from which the city would never recover. From 500 CE to 540 CE, the city languished[62] after falling under the control of the Hunnic Empire ruled byMihirakula. Mihirakula presided over some destruction of Buddhist sites, monasteries and Hindu temples across northwestern regions of the Indian subcontinent.[63][64]
Xuanzang visited India between 629 and 645 CE. Taxila which was desolate and half-ruined was visited by him in 630 CE, and found most of itssangharamas still ruined and desolate. Only a few monks remained there. He adds that the kingdom had become a dependency of Kashmir with the local leaders fighting amongst themselves for power. He noted that it had some time previously been a subject ofKapisa. By the ninth century, it became a dependency of the Kabul Shahis. TheTurki Shahi dynasty of Kabul was replaced by theHindu Shahi dynasty which was overthrown byMahmud of Ghazni with the defeat ofTrilochanpala.[65][66]
Al-Usaifan's king during the reign ofAl-Mu'tasim is said to have converted to Islam byAl-Biladhuri and abandoned his old faith due to the death of his son despite having priests of a temple pray for his recovery. Said to be located between Kashmir, Multan and Kabul, al-Usaifan is identified with kingdom of Taxila by some authors.[67][68]
By some accounts, Taxila was considered to be one of the earliest (or the earliest) universities in the world.[60][69][70] The school consisted of several monasteries without large dormitories or lecture halls where the religious instruction was provided on an individualistic basis.[71] Others do not consider it a university in the modern sense, in that the teachers living there may not have had official membership of particular colleges, and there did not seem to have existed purpose-built lecture halls and residential quarters in Taxila,[72][73] in contrast to the laterNalanda university in eastern India.[74][75][15]
Taxila became a noted centre of learning (including the religious teachings ofHistorical Vedic Religion andBuddhism) at least several centuries BCE, and continued to attract students from around the old world until the destruction of the city in the 5th century. It has been suggested that at its height, Taxila exerted a sort of "intellectualsuzerainty" over other centres of learning in India and its primary concern was not with elementary, but higher education.[70] Generally, a student entered Taxila at the age of sixteen. The ancient and the most revered scriptures, and the EighteenSilpas or Arts, which included skills such as archery, hunting, and elephant lore, were taught, in addition to its law school, medical school, and school ofmilitary science.[76] Students came to Taxila from far-off places such asKashi,Kosala and Magadha, in spite of the long and arduous journey they had to undergo, on account of the excellence of the learned teachers there, all recognised as authorities on their respective subjects.[77][78] The admission to Takshashila was not only limited to the students belonging to the elite class, some evidence mentions the sons of kings, nobles, merchants, tailors, and even fishermen getting education at Takshashila.[79]
Taxila had great influence on Hindu culture and the Sanskrit language. It is perhaps best known for its association with Chanakya, also known asKautilya, the strategist who guided Chandragupta Maurya and assisted in the founding of theMauryan empire. TheAyurvedic healerCharaka also studied at Taxila.[76] He also started teaching at Taxila in the later period.[80][unreliable source?] Pāṇini, the grammarian who codified the rules that would defineClassical Sanskrit, has also been part of the community at Taxila.[81]
Jīvaka, the court physician of the Magadha emperorBimbisara who once cured the Buddha, and the Buddhism-supporting ruler of Kosala, Prasenajit, are some important personalities mentioned in Pali texts who studied at Taxila.[82]
No external authorities like kings or local leaders subjected the scholastic activities at Taxila to their control. Each teacher formed his own institution, enjoying complete autonomy in work, teaching as many students as he liked and teaching subjects he liked without conforming to any centralised syllabus. Study terminated when the teacher was satisfied with the student's level of achievement. In general, specialisation in a subject took around eight years, though this could be lengthened or shortened in accordance with the intellectual abilities and dedication of the student in question. In most cases the "schools" were located within the teachers' private houses, and at times students were advised to quit their studies if they were unable to fit into the social, intellectual and moral atmosphere there.[83]
Knowledge was considered too sacred to be bartered for money, and hence any stipulation that fees ought to be paid was vigorously condemned[citation needed]. Financial support came from the society at large, as well as from rich merchants and wealthy parents[citation needed]. Though the number of students studying under a single Guru sometimes numbered in the hundreds, teachers did not deny education even if the student was poor; free boarding and lodging was provided, and students had to do manual work in the household[citation needed]. Paying students, such as princes, were taught during the day, while non-paying ones were taught at night.[84]Gurudakshina was usually expected at the completion of a student's studies, but it was essentially a mere token of respect and gratitude - many times being nothing more than a turban, a pair of sandals, or an umbrella. In cases of poor students being unable to afford even that, they could approach the king, who would then step in and provide something. Not providing a poor student a means to supply his Guru's Dakshina was considered the greatest slur on a King's reputation.[85]
Examinations were treated as superfluous, and not considered part of the requirements to complete one's studies[citation needed]. The process of teaching was critical and thorough- unless one unit was mastered completely, the student was not allowed to proceed to the next[citation needed]. No convocations were held upon completion, and no written "degrees" were awarded, since it was believed that knowledge was its own reward. Using knowledge for earning a living or for any selfish end was considered sacrilegious.[83]
Students arriving at Taxila usually had completed their primary education at home (until the age of eight), and their secondary education in the Ashrams (between the ages of eight and twelve), and therefore came to Taxila chiefly to reach the ends of knowledge in specific disciplines.[86]
The sites of a number of important cities noted in ancient Indian texts were identified by scholars early in the 19th century. The lost city of Taxila, however, was not identified until later, in 1863-64. Its identification was made difficult partly due to errors in the distances recorded byPliny in hisNaturalis Historia which pointed to a location somewhere on theHaro river, two days march from the Indus.Alexander Cunningham, the founder and the first director-general of theArchaeological Survey of India, noticed that this position did not agree with the descriptions provided in the itineraries of Chinese pilgrims and in particular, that of Xuanzang, the 7th-century Buddhist monk. Unlike Pliny, these sources noted that the journey to Taxila from the Indus took three days and not two. Cunningham's subsequent explorations in 1863–64 of a site at Shah-dheri convinced him that his hypothesis was correct.[87]
Now as Hwen Thsang, on his return to China, was accompanied by laden elephants, his three days' journey fromTakhshasila [sic] to the Indus atUtakhanda, or Ohind, must necessarily have been of the same length as those of modern days, and, consequently, the site of the city must be looked for somewhere in the neighbourhood ofKâla-ka-sarâi. This site is found nearShah-dheri, just one mile to the north-east ofKâla-ka-sarâi, in the extensive ruins of a fortified city, around which I was able to trace no less than 55 stupas, of which two are as large as the greatManikyala tope, twenty eight monasteries, and nine temples.
Taxila's archaeological sites lie nearmodern Taxila about 35 km (22 mi) northwest of the city of Rawalpindi.[15] The sites were first excavated byJohn Marshall, who worked at Taxila over a period of twenty years from 1913.[89]
The vast archaeological site includes neolithic remains dating to 3360 BCE, and Early Harappan remains dating to 2900–2600 BCE atSarai Kala.[36] Taxila, however, is most famous for ruins of several settlements, the earliest dating from around 1000 BCE. It is also known for its collection of Buddhist religious monuments, including theDharmarajika stupa, theJaulian monastery, and theMohra Muradu monastery.
The main ruins of Taxila include four major cities, each belonging to a distinct time period, at three different sites. The earliest settlement at Taxila is found in the Hathial section, which yielded pottery shards that date from as early as the late 2nd millennium BCE to the 6th century BCE. The Bhir Mound ruins at the site date from the 6th century BCE, and are adjacent to Hathial. The ruins of Sirkap date to the 2nd century BCE, and were built by the region'sGreco-Bactrian kings who ruled in the region following Alexander the Great's invasion of the region in 326 BCE. The third and most recent settlement is that ofSirsukh, which was built by rulers of theKushan empire, who ruled from nearby Purushapura (modern Peshawar).
Taxila was designated aUNESCO World Heritage Site in 1980 in particular for the ruins of the four settlement sites which "reveal the pattern of urban evolution on the Indian subcontinent through more than five centuries". The serial site includes a number of monuments and other historical places of note in the area besides the four settlements at Bhir, Saraikala, Sirkap, and Sirsukh.[90] They number 18 in all:[91]
In a 2010 report,Global Heritage Fund identified Taxila as one of 12 worldwide sites most "on the Verge" of irreparable loss and damage, citing insufficient management, development pressure, looting, and war and conflict as primary threats.[11] In 2017, it was announced thatThailand would assist in conservation efforts at Taxila, as well as at Buddhist sites in theSwat Valley.[92]
Taxila's ruins, aUNESCO World Heritage Site, date from as early as 1000 BCE, and are a major tourist draw.
Taxila is one of northern Pakistan's most important tourist destinations and is home to theTaxila Museum which holds a large number of artifacts from Taxila's excavations. Though the number of foreign visitors to the site drastically declined following the start of an Islamist insurgency in Pakistan in 2007, visitor numbers began to noticeably improve by 2017,[94] after the law and order situation in the region had greatly improved following the start of the 2014Zarb-e-Azb campaign launched by thePakistani Army against radical Islamist militants.
In 2017, the Pakistani government announced its intention to develop Taxila into a site for Buddhist religious pilgrimage.[95] As part of the efforts, it announced that an exhibition on the Buddhist heritage of the region would be held inThailand, and that the Thai government would assist in conservation efforts at the site.[96] Relics from Taxila were also sent toSri Lanka for the 2017Vesak holiday as part of an effort to showcase the region's Buddhist heritage.[97] ThePakistan Tourism Development Corporation also announced in 2017 that a tour bus service would be launched between the Taxila Museum and Islamabad.[98]
In addition to the ruins of ancient Taxila, relics ofMughal gardens and vestiges of historicalGrand Trunk Road are also found in Taxila.Nicholson's Obelisk, named in honor of BrigadierJohn Nicholson who died during theSepoy Mutiny of 1857, is a monument from the British era that welcomes travelers arriving from Rawalpindi/Islamabad.
TheRuins of Taxila include four major cities, each belonging to a distinct time period, at three different sites. The earliest settlement at Taxila is found in theHathial section, which yielded pottery shards that date from as early as the late 2nd millennium BCE to the 6th century BCE. TheBhir Mound ruins at the site date from the 6th century BCE, and are adjacent toHathial. The ruins ofSirkap date to the 2nd century BCE, and were built by the region'sGreco-Bactrian kings who ruled in the region following Alexander the Great's invasion of the region in 326 BCE. The third and most recent settlement is that ofSirsukh, which was built by rulers of the Kushan empire, who ruled from nearbyPurushapura (modern Peshawar).
Modern Taxila is a mix of relatively wealthy urban, and poorer rural environs. Urban residential areas are general in the form of planned housing colonies populated by workers of the heavy mechanical complex & heavy industries, educational institutes and hospitals that are located in the area.
Taxila Museum has one of the most significant and comprehensive collections of stone Buddhist sculpture from the first to the seventh centuries in Pakistan (known asGandharan art. The core of the collection comes from excavated sites in the Taxila Valley, particularly the excavations of Sir John Marshall. Other objects come from excavated sites elsewhere in Gandhara, from donations such as the Ram Das Collection, or from material confiscated by the police and customs authorities.
Archaeological artifacts from theIndo-Greek strata at Taxila (John Marshall "Taxila, Archeological excavations"). From top, left: * Fluted cup (Bhir Mound, stratum 1) * Cup with rosacea and decorative scroll (Bhir Mound, stratum 1) *Stone palette with an individual on a couch being crowned by a standing woman, and served (Sirkap, stratum 5) * Handle with a double depiction of aphilosopher (Sirkap, stratum 5) * Woman withsmile (Sirkap, stratum 5) * Man withmoustache (Sirkap, stratum 5)
"In the early centuries the centre of Buddhist scholarship was the University of Taxila."
^Balakrishnan Muniapan,Junaid M. Shaikh (2007), "Lessons in corporate governance from Kautilya'sArthashastra in ancient India",World Review of Entrepreneurship, Management and Sustainable Development3 (1):
"Kautilya was also aProfessor of Politics and Economics at Taxila University. Taxila University is one of the oldest known universities in the world and it was the chief learning centre in ancient India."
"Thus the various centres of learning in different parts of the country became affiliated, as it were, to the educational centre, or the central university, of Taxila which exercised a kind of intellectualsuzerainty over the wide world of letters in India."
^J. W. McCrindle,The Invasion of India by Alexander the Great as Described by Arrian, Q. Curtius, Diodorus, Plutarch and Justin, Westminster, Constable, 1893, pp.343–344.
^Saifur Rahman Dar. "Antiquity, Meaning and Origin of the Name Takshashila or Taxila".The Panjab Past and Present.11 (2): 11.
"The Bodhisatta was once the youngest of one hundred sons of the king of Benares. He heard from the Pacceka Buddhas, who took their meals in the palace, that he would become king of Takkasilā if he could reach it without falling a prey to the ogresses who waylaid travellers in the forest. Thereupon, he set out with five of his brothers who wished to accompany him. On the way through the forest the five in succession succumbed to the charms of the ogresses, and were devoured. One ogress followed the Bodhisatta right up to the gates of Takkasilā, where the king took her into the palace, paying no heed to the Bodhisatta's warning. The king succumbed to her wiles, and, during the night, the king and all the inhabitants of the palace were eaten by the ogress and her companions. The people, realising the sagacity and strength of will of the Bodhisatta, made him their king."
^abPetrie, Cameron, (2013)."Taxila", in D. K. Chakrabarti and M. Lal (eds.),History of Ancient India III: The Texts, and Political History and Administration till c. 200 BC, Vivekananda International Foundation, Aryan Books International, Delhi, p. 654.
^Allchin & Allchin 1988, p. 314: "The first city of Taxila at Hathial goes back at least to c. 1000 B.C."
^Petrie, Cameron, (2013)."Taxila", in D. K. Chakrabarti and M. Lal (eds.),History of Ancient India III: The Texts, and Political History and Administration till c. 200 BC, Vivekananda International Foundation, Aryan Books International, Delhi, p. 656.
^A Record of Buddhistic Kingdoms, Being an Account by the Chinese Monk Fa-Hsien of his Travels in India and Ceylon in Search of the Buddhist Books of Discipline, Chapter 11
^Li Rongxi (1996),The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions, Bukkyo Dendo Kyokai and Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research, Berkeley, pp. 97–100
^Scharfe, Hartmut; Bronkhorst, Johannes; Spuler, Bertold; Altenmüller, Hartwig (2002).Handbuch Der Orientalistik: India. Education in ancient India. p. 141.ISBN978-90-04-12556-8.
"We come across severalJātaka stories about the students and teachers of Takshaśilā, but not a single episode even remotely suggests that the different 'world renowned' teachers living in that city belonged to a particular college or university of the modern type."
"Students from Magadha traversed the vast distances of northern India in order to join the schools and colleges of Taxila. We learn from Pali texts that Brahmana youths, Khattiya princes and sons ofsetthis from Rajagriha, Kashi, Kosala and other places went to Taxila for learning the Vedas and eighteen sciences and arts."
"Likewise, Jivaka, the famous physician of Bimbisara who cured the Buddha, learnt the science of medicine under a far-famed teacher at Taxila and on his return was appointed court-physician at Magadha. Another illustrious product of Taxila was the enlightened ruler of Kosala, Prasenajit, who is intimately associated with the events of the time of the Buddha."
Allchin, F. Raymond (1993). "The Urban Position of Taxila and Its Place in Northwest India-Pakistan".Studies in the History of Art.31:69–81.JSTOR42620473.
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