On 9 September 1991, Tajikistan declared itself an independent sovereign state asthe Soviet Union was disintegrating. Acivil war was fought after independence, lasting from May 1992 to June 1997. Since the end of the war, newly established political stability and foreign aid have allowed the country's economy to grow. The country has been led since 1994 byEmomali Rahmon, who heads anauthoritarian regime and whosehuman rights record has been criticised.[16][17]
The term "Tajik" itself ultimately derives from theMiddle PersianTāzīk, theTurkic rendition of theArabic ethnonymṬayyi’, denoting aQahtaniteArab tribe who emigrated to theTransoxiana region ofCentral Asia in the 7th century AD.[21] Tajikistan appeared asTadjikistan orTadzhikistan in English prior to 1991. This is due to a transliteration from theRussian:"Таджикистан". In Russian, there is no single letter "j" to represent the phoneme/d͡ʒ/, and thereforeдж, or dzh, is used. Tadzhikistan is the alternate spelling and is used in English literature derived from Russian sources.[22]
While theLibrary of Congress's 1997 Country Study of Tajikistan found it difficult to definitively state the origins of the word "Tajik" because the term is "embroiled in twentieth-century political disputes about whether Turkic or Iranic peoples were the original inhabitants of Central Asia,"[23] scholars concluded that contemporaryTajiks are the descendants of theEastern Iranic inhabitants ofCentral Asia, in particular, theSogdians and theBactrians and possibly other groups.[24][25][26] In later works,Richard Frye expands on the complexity of the historical origins of the Tajiks. In a 1996 publication, Frye explains that "factors must be taken into account in explaining the evolution of the peoples whose remnants are the Tajiks in Central Asia" and that "the peoples of Central Asia, whetherIranic orTurkic speaking, have one culture, one religion, one set of social values and traditions with only language separating them".[27]
The Tajiks are the direct descendants of the Iranic peoples whose continuous presence in Central Asia and northern Afghanistan is attested from the middle of the first millennium BC. The ancestors of the Tajiks constituted the core of the ancient population of Khwārezm (Khorezm) and Bactria, which formed part of Transoxania (Sogdiana). Over the course of time, the eastern Iranic dialect that was used by the ancient Tajiks eventually gave way toTajiki.[28]
The earliest recorded history of the region dates back to about 500 BC when most, if not all, of Tajikistan was part of theAchaemenid Empire.[23] Some authors have suggested that in the seventh and sixth centuries BC parts of Tajikistan, including territories in the Zeravshan valley, formed part of theHinduKambojas tribe[32][33] before it became part of theAchaemenid Empire.[34]After the region's conquest byAlexander the Great it became part of theGreco-Bactrian Kingdom, a successor state of Alexander's empire. Northern Tajikistan (the cities ofKhujand andPanjakent) was part ofSogdia, a collection of city-states which was overrun byScytho-Siberians andYuezhi nomadic tribes around 150 BC. TheSilk Road passed through the region and following the expedition of Chinese explorerZhang Qian during the reign ofWudi (141 BC–87 BC) commercial relations betweenHan Empire and Sogdiana flourished.[35][36] Sogdians played a role in facilitating trade and worked in other capacities, as farmers, carpetweavers, glassmakers, and woodcarvers.[37]
TheSamanid Empire, 819 to 999, restoredPersian control of the region and enlarged the cities ofSamarkand andBukhara, which became the cultural centres ofIran; the region was known as Khorasan. The empire was centred in Khorasan and Transoxiana, at its greatest extent encompassing Afghanistan, parts of Iran, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, parts of Kazakhstan, and Pakistan.
Four brothers Nuh, Ahmad, Yahya, and Ilyas founded the Samanid state. Each of them ruled territory underAbbasid suzerainty. In 892,Ismail Samani (892–907) united the Samanid state under one ruler, thus putting an end to the feudal system used by the Samanids. It was under him that the Samanids became independent of Abbasid authority.
TheKara-Khanid Khanate conqueredTransoxania (which corresponded approximately with what later would be Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, southern Kyrgyzstan, and southwest Kazakhstan) and ruled between 999 and 1211.[39][40] Their arrival in Transoxania signalled a definitive shift from Iranian to Turkic predominance in Central Asia,[41] and gradually the Kara-khanids became assimilated into the Perso-Arab Muslim culture of the region.[42]
During the 19th century, the Russian Empire began to conquer parts of the region.[44] RussianImperialism led to theRussian Empire's conquest ofCentral Asia during the 19th century'sImperial Era. Between 1864 and 1885, Russia gradually took control of the entire territory ofRussian Turkestan, the Tajikistan portion of which had been controlled by theEmirate of Bukhara andKhanate of Kokand. Russia was interested in gaining access to a supply ofcotton and in the 1870s attempted to switch cultivation in the region from grain to cotton (a strategy later copied and expanded by the Soviets).[45]
During the 19th century, theJadidists established themselves as an Islamic social movement throughout the region. While the Jadidists were pro-modernisation and not necessarily anti-Russian, the Russians viewed the movement as a threat because the Russian Empire was predominantly Christian.[46] Russian troops were required to restore order during uprisings against the Khanate of Kokand between 1910 and 1913. Further violence occurred in July 1916 when demonstrators attacked Russian soldiers inKhujand over the threat of forcedconscription duringWorld War I. While Russian troops brought Khujand back under control, clashes continued throughout the year in various locations in Tajikistan.[47]
After theRussian Revolution of 1917 guerrillas throughout Central Asia, known asbasmachi, wageda war againstBolshevik armies in an attempt to maintain independence.[43] The Bolsheviks prevailed after a four-year war, in whichmosques and villages were burned down and the population suppressed.
Tajikistan was first created in 1924 as theTajik Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (abbrievated Tajik ASSR), an autonomous republic within theUzbek Soviet Socialist Republic.[50] Despite their historical status as Tajik cities and mostly being populated by Tajiks, none of the regional urban centres—such asBukhara,Samarkand,Tirmiz,Qarshi, andKhojand—were included in Tajikistan. Instead, the Tajikistani capital was established inDushanbe, a mountain town with approximately 1,000 residents.[51]
A specific Persian dialect, with vocabulary and pronunciation different from formal written Persian, was deliberately made the national language of Tajikistan by the Soviets and renamed "Tajiki" to forcibly separate it from the common variant of Persian spoken fromIstanbul toCalcutta. The Tajiks were also excluded from the enormous global world of Persian literature, both past and current, by the creation of a new phonetic alphabet, first Latin-based in 1928 and later Cyrillic in 1940.[52] With Persian confined to Tajikistan and replaced by Russian as Central Asia's common language, the unity of thePersianate world was broken, steering Soviet and post-Soviet Central Asia onto a developmental path distinct from Iran and Afghanistan.[53] In 1929, the Tajik ASSR was elevated to its own fullunion republic, theTajik Soviet Socialist Republic. TheSughd Region was added to Tajikistan in the same year.[54]
Between 1927 and 1934,collectivisation of agriculture and an expansion of cotton production took place, especially in the southern region.[55] Soviet collectivization policy brought violence against farmers and peasants, classified asanti-Soviet categories of "enemies of the people", andforced resettlement occurred throughout Tajikistan. Consequently, some peasants fought collectivisation and revived theBasmachi movement. Some industrial development occurred during this time along with the expansion of irrigation infrastructure.[55]
Soviet Tajikistan in 1964
Two rounds ofStalin's purges (1927–1934 and 1937–1938) resulted in the expulsion of nearly 10,000 people from all levels of theCommunist Party of Tajikistan.[56] EthnicRussians were sent in to replace those expelled and subsequently Russians dominated party positions at all levels, including the top position of first secretary.[56] Between 1926 and 1959 the proportion of Russians among Tajikistan's population grew from less than 1% to 13%.[57]Bobojon Ghafurov,First Secretary of the Communist Party of Tajikistan from 1946 to 1956, was the only Tajik politician of significance outside of the republic during the Soviet Era.[58]
Tajiks began to be conscripted into theRed Army in 1939 and duringWorld War II around 260,000 Tajik citizens fought againstNazi Germany,Finland, and theEmpire of Japan. Between 60,000 (4%)[59] and 120,000 (8%)[60] of Tajikistan's 1,530,000 citizens were killed during World War II.[61]
Following the war and the end of Stalin's reign, attempts were made to further expand the agriculture and industry of Tajikistan.[58] During 1957–58Nikita Khrushchev'sVirgin Lands Campaign focused attention on Tajikistan, where living conditions, education and industry lagged behind the otherSoviet Republics.[58] In the 1980s, Tajikistan had the lowest household saving rate in the USSR,[62] the lowest percentage of households in the two top per capita income groups,[63] and the lowest rate of university graduates per 1000 people.[64]
By the 1980s Tajik nationalists were calling for increased rights. Real disturbances did not occur within the republic until 1990. The following year, theSoviet Union collapsed, and Tajikistan declared its independence on 9 September 1991, a day which is celebrated as the country'sIndependence Day.[65]
Tajik men and women rally onOzodi square in Dushanbe after independence, 1992.
In February 1990,riots and strikes inDushanbe and other cities began due to the difficult socio-economic situation, lack of housing, and youth unemployment.[43] The nationalist and democratic opposition and supporters of independence joined the strikes and began to demand the independence of the republic and democratic reforms.Islamists began to hold strikes to demand respect for their rights and independence. The Soviet leadership introduced Internal Troops in Dushanbe to eliminate the unrest.[43]
The war lasted until 1997. More than 500,000 residents fled during this time because of persecution and increased poverty, seeking better economic opportunities in the West or in other former Soviet republics.[68] The estimated dead numbered over 100,000. Around 1.2 million people wererefugees inside and outside of the country.[66]
Emomali Rahmon came to power in the early part of this conflict in 1992,[43] after Nabiyev was forced at gunpoint on 7 September 1992 to resign from office.[69] Rahmon defeated former prime ministerAbdumalik Abdullajanov in a November presidential election with 58% of the vote.[70]
In 1997, aceasefire was reached between Rahmon and opposition parties under the guidance of Gerd D. Merrem,[43] Special Representative to the Secretary General, a result praised as a successful United Nations peacekeeping initiative. The ceasefire guaranteed 30% of ministerial positions would go to theopposition.[71]Elections were held in 1999 and were criticised by opposition parties and foreign observers as unfair; Rahmon was re-elected with 98% of the vote.[43]Elections in 2006 were again won by Rahmon (with 79% of the vote) and he began his third term in office. Opposition parties boycotted the 2006 election and theOrganization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) criticised it, while observers from theCommonwealth of Independent States claimed the elections were legal and transparent.[72][73]
Rahmon's administration came under further criticism from OSCE in October 2010 for its censorship and repression of the media. OSCE claimed that the Tajik Government censored Tajik and foreign websites and instituted tax inspections on independent printing houses that led to the cessation of printing activities for a number of independent newspapers.[74]
Russian border troops were stationed along the Tajik–Afghan border until summer 2005. Since theSeptember 11, 2001 attacks, French troops have been stationed atDushanbe Airport in support of air operations ofNATO'sInternational Security Assistance Force inAfghanistan.United States Army andMarine Corps personnel periodically visit Tajikistan to conduct joint training missions of up to several weeks' duration. TheGovernment of India rebuilt theAyni Air Base, a military airport located 15 km southwest of Dushanbe, at a cost of $70 million, completing the repairs in September 2010.[75] It is the main base of the Tajikistan air force. There have been talks with Russia concerning use of the Ayni facility,[76] and Russia continues to maintain a base on the outskirts of Dushanbe.[77]
In 2010, there were concerns among Tajik officials that Islamic militarism in the east of the country was on the rise following the escape of 25 militants from a Tajik prison in August, an ambush that killed 28 Tajik soldiers in theRasht Valley in September,[78] and another ambush in the valley in October that killed 30 soldiers,[79] followed by fighting outsideGharm that left three militants dead. The country's Interior Ministry insisted that the central government maintained full control over the country's east, and the military operation in the Rasht Valley was concluded in November 2010.[80]
Fighting erupted again, this time in and around Gorno-Badakhshan, in July 2012.[81]In 2015, Russia sent more troops to Tajikistan.[82]
In May 2015, Tajikistan's national security underwent a setback when ColonelGulmurod Khalimov, commander of the special-purpose police unit (OMON) of the Interior Ministry, defected to theIslamic State.[43][83] Khalimov was allegedly killed on 8 September 2017 during a Russian airstrike nearDeir ez-Zor,Syria,[84] although Tajikistan authorities express doubts whether he has died.
After independence, Tajikistan was plunged into a civil war. Factions were supported by foreign countries includingAfghanistan, Iran, Pakistan,Uzbekistan and Russia. Russia and Iran focused on keeping peace in the warring nation to decrease the chances ofU.S. orTurkish involvement. Russia backed the pro-government faction and deployed troops from theCommonwealth of Independent States to guard the Tajikistan-Afghan border.[88] All but 25,000 of the more than 400,000 ethnic Russians, who were mostly employed in industry, fled to Russia. By 1997, the war had ended after apeace agreement between the government and the Islamist-led opposition, and a central government began to take form, with peaceful elections in 1999.[89]
"Longtime observers of Tajikistan often characterize the country as profoundly averse to risk and skeptical of promises of reform, a political passivity they trace to the country's ruinous civil war," Ilan Greenberg wrote in a news article inThe New York Times before the country's November 2006 presidential election.[90]
The parliamentary elections of 2005 aroused accusations from opposition parties and international observers that PresidentEmomali Rahmon corruptly manipulated the election process and unemployment. Elections in February 2010 saw the ruling PDPT lose four seats in Parliament, yet still maintain a majority. TheOrganization for Security and Co-operation in Europe election observers said the 2010 polling "failed to meet many key OSCE commitments" and that "these elections failed on many basic democratic standards."[91][92] The government insisted that only minor violations had occurred, which would not affect the will of the Tajik people.[91][92]
The Tajik government has reportedly clamped down on facial hair as part of a crackdown on Islamic influence and due to its perceived associations withIslamic extremism, which is evident in borderingAfghanistan.[93][94]
The presidential election held on 6 November 2006 was boycotted by "mainline" opposition parties, including the 23,000-memberIslamic Renaissance Party. Four remaining opponents "all but endorsed the incumbent", Rahmon.[90]
Freedom of the press is officially guaranteed by the government, and independent press outlets remain restricted, as does an amount of web content.[95] According to theInstitute for War & Peace Reporting, access to local and foreign websites is blocked, and journalists are sometimes obstructed from reporting on some events. In practice, no public criticism of the regime is tolerated and all direct protest is suppressed and denied coverage in the local media.[96]
In July 2019, UN ambassadors of 37 countries, including Tajikistan, signed a joint letter toUNHRC defending China'streatment of Uyghurs in theXinjiang region.[98]
In July 2021, Tajikistan appealed to members of a Russian-ledCollective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO) of ex-Soviet states for help in dealing with security challenges emerging from neighbouringAfghanistan.[102] The safety concerns emerged as foreign troops such as the US and British army exited the country, causing over 1,000 Afghan civilians and servicemen to flee to neighbouring Tajikistan afterTaliban insurgentstook control of parts of Afghanistan.[103]
Tajikistan islandlocked, and is the smallest nation in Central Asia by area. It lies mostly between latitudes36° and41° N, and longitudes67° and75° E. It is covered by mountains of thePamir range, and most of the country is over 3,000 metres (9,800 ft) abovesea level. The areas of lower land are in the north (part of theFergana Valley), and in the southernKofarnihon andVakhsh river valleys, which form the Amu Darya.Dushanbe is located on the southern slopes above the Kofarnihon valley.
TheAmu Darya andPanj rivers mark the border with Afghanistan, and the glaciers in Tajikistan's mountains are the source ofrunoff for theAral Sea. There are over 900 rivers in Tajikistan longer than 10 kilometres.
A clickable map of Tajikistan exhibiting its four provinces.
Mountains
Tajikistan consists of four administrative divisions. These are the provinces (viloyat) ofSughd andKhatlon, the autonomous province ofGorno-Badakhshan (abbreviated as GBAO), and theRegions of Republican Subordination (RRP – Raiony Respublikanskogo Podchineniya intransliteration from Russian or NTJ – Ноҳияҳои тобеи ҷумҳурӣ [Nohiyahoi tobei jumhurii] inTajik). Each region is divided intodistricts (Tajik:Ноҳия,nohiya orraion), which in turn are subdivided intojamoats (village-level self-governing units) and then villages (qyshloqs). As of 2006[update], there were 58 districts and 367 jamoats in Tajikistan.[104]
In 2019, nearly 29% of Tajikistan's GDP came fromimmigrantremittances (mostly from Tajiks working in Russia).[107][108][109] With foreign revenue precariously dependent upon remittances from migrant workers overseas and exports of aluminium and cotton, the economy is vulnerable to external shocks. In fiscal year 2000, international assistance remained an essential source of support for rehabilitation programs that reintegrated former civil war combatants into the civilian economy, which helped keep the peace. International assistance was necessary to address the second year ofdrought that resulted in a continued shortfall of food production. On 21 August 2001, theRed Cross announced that afamine was striking Tajikistan, and called for international aid for the country.[110] In January 2012, 680,152 of the people living in Tajikistan were living withfood insecurity. Out of those, 676,852 were at risk of Phase 3 (Acute Food and Livelihoods Crisis) food insecurity, and 3,300 were at risk of Phase 4 (Humanitarian Emergency). Those with the highest risk of food insecurity were living in theMurghob District ofGBAO.[111]
Themalnutrition rate in Tajikistan will reach 30% in 2023 according to the United NationsWorld Food Programme (WFP). As in the rest ofCentral Asia, soils are deteriorating and water resources are diminishing, particularly as a result ofclimate change.[112]
TheTadAZ aluminium smelting plant, in Tursunzoda, is the largest aluminium manufacturing plant inCentral Asia, and Tajikistan's chief industrial asset.
Tajikistan's economy grew after the war. The GDP of Tajikistan expanded at an average rate of 9.6% over the period of 2000–2007 according to the World Bank data. This "improved" Tajikistan's position among other Central Asian countries (namelyTurkmenistan and Uzbekistan), which seem to have degraded economically ever since.[113] The primary sources of income in Tajikistan arealuminium production, cotton growing and remittances from migrant workers.[114] Cotton accounts for 60% of agricultural output, supporting 75% of the rural population, and using 45% of irrigated arable land.[115] The aluminium industry is represented by the state-ownedTajik Aluminum Company – the biggest aluminium plant in Central Asia and one of the biggest in the world.[116]
Tajikistan's rivers, such as theVakhsh and thePanj, have hydropower potential, and the government has focused on attracting investment for projects for internal use and electricity exports. Tajikistan is home to theNurek Dam, the second highest dam in the world.[117] Russia'sRAO UES has been working on the Sangtuda-1 hydroelectric power station (670 MW capacity) which commenced operations on 18 January 2008.[118][119] Other projects at the development stage include Sangtuda-2 by Iran, Zerafshan by the Chinese companySinoHydro, and theRogun power plant that, at a projected height of 335 metres (1,099 ft), would supersede the Nurek Dam as highest in the world if it is brought to completion.[120][121] A planned project,CASA-1000, will transmit 1000 MW of surplus electricity from Tajikistan to Pakistan with power transit through Afghanistan. The total length of transmission line is 750 km while the project is planned to be on Public-Private Partnership basis with the support of WB, IFC, ADB and IDB. The project cost is estimated to be around US$865 million.[122] Other energy resources include coal deposits and smaller reserves of natural gas and petroleum.[123]
In 2014 Tajikistan was the world's mostremittance-dependent economy with remittances accounting for 49% of GDP and expected to fall by 40% in 2015 due to the economic crisis in the Russian Federation.[124] Tajik migrant workers abroad, mainly in the Russian Federation, have become the main source of income for millions of Tajikistan's people[125] and with the 2014–2015 downturn in the Russian economy the World Bank warned that numbers of Tajik men would return home and face "few" economic prospects.[124]
According to some estimates about 47% of the population lives on less than US$1.25 per day.[112][126] Migration from Tajikistan and the consequent remittances have been unprecedented in their magnitude and economic impact. In 2010, remittances from Tajik labour migrants totalled an estimated $2.1 billion US dollars, an increase from 2009. Tajikistan has achieved transition from a planned to a market economy without "substantial and protracted" recourse to aid, and by purely market-based means, simply by exporting its main commodity of comparative advantage — cheap labour.[127] The World Bank Tajikistan Policy Note 2006 concludes that remittances have played a role as one of the drivers of Tajikistan's economic growth during the past years, have increased incomes, and as a result helped reduce poverty.[128]
Drug trafficking is an illegal source of income in Tajikistan[129] as it is a transit country for Afghannarcotics bound for Russian and, to a lesser extent, Western European markets; someopium poppy is raised locally for the domestic market.[130] With the increasing assistance from international organisations, such as UNODC, and co-operation with the US, Russian, EU and Afghan authorities a level of progress on the fight against illegal drug-trafficking is being achieved.[131] Tajikistan holds third place in the world forheroin and rawopium confiscations (1216.3 kg of heroin and 267.8 kg of raw opium in the first half of 2006).[3][132] Drug money corrupts the country's government; according to some experts the personalities that fought on both sides of thecivil war and have held the positions in the government after the armistice was signed are involved in the drug trade.[130]UNODC is working with Tajikistan to strengthen border crossings, provide training, and set up joint interdiction teams. It helped to establish Tajikistani Drug Control Agency.[133]
Besides Russia, China is one of the economic and trade partners of Dushanbe. Tajikistan belongs to the group of countries associated with Chinese investment within theBelt and Road Initiative.[134]
As a landlocked country, Tajikistan has no ports and the majority of transportation is via roads, air, and rail. Over the years Tajikistan has pursued agreements with Iran and Pakistan to gain port access in those countries viaAfghanistan. In 2009, an agreement was made between Tajikistan, Pakistan, and Afghanistan to improve and build a 1,300 km (810 mi) highway and rail system connecting the three countries to Pakistan's ports. The proposed route would go through theGorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Province in the eastern part of the country.[135] In 2012, the presidents of Tajikistan, Afghanistan, and Iran signed an agreement to construct roads and railways, and oil, gas, and water pipelines to connect the three countries.[136]
Therailroad system totals only 680 kilometres (420 mi) of track,[3] all of it1,520 mm (4 ft 11+27⁄32 in)broad gauge. The principal segments are in the southern region and connect the capital with the industrial areas of theHisor andVakhsh valleys and withUzbekistan,Turkmenistan,Kazakhstan and Russia.[137] Most international freight traffic is carried by train.[138] TheBokhtar–Kulob railway connected theKulob District with the central area of the country.[138]
Air
In 2009 Tajikistan had 26 airports, 18 of which had paved runways, of which two had runways longer than 3,000 meters.
Roads
The total length of roads in the country is 27,800 kilometres. Automobiles account for more than 90% of the total volume of passenger transportation and more than 80% of domestic freight transportation.[138]
In 2004 theTajik–Afghan Friendship Bridge between Afghanistan and Tajikistan was built, improving the country's access toSouth Asia. The bridge was built by the United States.[139]
As of 2014[update] highway and tunnel construction projects are underway or have been completed. Projects include rehabilitation of the Dushanbe – Chanak (Uzbek border), Dushanbe – Kulma (Chinese border), and Kurgan-Tube – Nizhny Pyanj (Afghan border) highways, and construction of tunnels under the mountain passes ofAnzob, Shakhristan, Shar-Shar[140] and Chormaghzak.[141] These were supported by international donor countries.[138][142]
In 2023, Tajikistan was estimated to have a population of 10,389,799 as per theWorld Bank data.[146] TheTajiks who speakTajik are the main ethnic group, while there are minorities ofUzbeks andRussians, whose numbers are declining due to emigration;[147] this makes Tajikistan the only country in Central Asia to have a minority of Turkic people, and instead a majority of Iranic people.[148] ThePamiris ofBadakhshan, a population ofYaghnobi people, and a minority ofIsmailis are considered to belong to the larger group of Tajiks. Citizens of Tajikistan are calledTajikistanis.[3]
In 1989, ethnicRussians in Tajikistan made up 7.6% of the population; by 1998 the proportion had reduced to approximately 0.5% following theTajikistani Civil War which had displaced the majority of ethnic Russians. Following the end of the war, Russian emigration continued.[149] Theethnic German population of Tajikistan has declined due to emigration: having topped at 38,853 in 1979, it has "almost vanished" since the collapse of the Soviet Union.[150]
TheTajiks are the principal ethnic group in most of Tajikistan, and in northern and westernAfghanistan;[151] there are more Tajiks in Afghanistan than in Tajikistan. Tajiks are a minority inUzbekistan.[152] About 2.4 million Tajik citizens were officially registered in Russia in 2021.[153]
The officiallanguages of Tajikistan areTajik as the state language andRussian as the interethnic language, as understood in Article 2 of the Constitution: "The state language of Tajikistan shall be Tajik. Russian shall be the language of international communication."[154]
The state (national) language (Tajik:забони давлатӣ,romanised: zaboni davlatí,Russian:государственный язык,romanised: gosudarstvennyy yazyk) of the Republic of Tajikistan isTajik, which is written in theTajik Cyrillic alphabet. Millions of native Tajik speakers live in neighbouringUzbekistan and in Russia.[155]
According to article 2 of the Constitution of the Republic of Tajikistan,[154] Russian is recognised as the second official language of Tajikistan; the official language of inter-ethnic communication (Russian:язык межнационального общения;Tajik:забони муоширати байни миллатҳо) in the country.[156][157]
Approximately 90% of the population of Tajikistan speaks Russian at varying levels.[158] The varieties of Russian spoken in Tajikistan are referred to by scholars asTajik(istani) Russian[159] and it shares some similarities withUzbek(istani) Russian, such as morphological differences and lexical differences such as the use of wordурюк[160] for a wild apricot orкислушка for rhubarb.[161]
Both Russian and Tajik speakers in the country use the following words in common in addressing unfamiliar people and acquaintances.[162]
Words of familial relation
Tajikistani Russian
Standard Russian
English translation
апа
старшая сестра
older sister
ака
старший брат
older brother
хола
тетя
aunt
янга
жена брата, невестка
daughter-in-law; sister-in-law
The "highly educated" part of the population of Tajikistan, and theintelligentsia, prefer to speak Russian and Persian, the pronunciation of which in Tajikistan is called the "Iranian style".[163][156][157]
Tajikistan is asecular state with a constitution providing for freedom of religion, but nevertheless it heavily regulates the practices of its Muslim majority.[167] Sunni Islam of theHanafi school has been officially recognised by the government since 2009.[168] The government has declared two Islamic holidays,Eid ul-Fitr andEid al-Adha, as state holidays. According to aUS State Department release and Pew research group, the population of Tajikistan is 98%Muslim. Approximately 87–95% of them areSunni and roughly 3% areShia and roughly 7% arenon-denominational Muslims.[169][170] The Shia part of the population predominantly live in theGorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Region and are followers of theIsmailite branch of Shia Islam.[171] The remaining 2% of the population are followers ofRussian Orthodoxy,Protestantism,Zoroastrianism andBuddhism. Muslims fast during Ramadan, while about one third in the countryside and 10% in the cities observe daily prayer and dietary restrictions.[172]
As of January 2016, as part of an "anti-radicalisation campaign", police in the Khatlon region reportedly shaved the beards of 13,000 men and shut down 160 shops selling thehijab. Shaving beards and discouraging women from wearing hijabs is part of a government campaign targeting trends that are deemed "alien and inconsistent with Tajik culture", and "to preserve secular traditions".[173]
There is a concern for religious institutions becoming active in the political sphere. TheIslamic Renaissance Party (IRP), a combatant in the1992–1997 Civil War and then-proponent of the creation of anIslamic state in Tajikistan, constitutes no more than 30% of the government by statute. Membership inHizb ut-Tahrir, a militant Islamic party which aims for an overthrow of secular governments and the unification of Tajiks under one Islamic state, is illegal and members are subject to arrest and imprisonment.[174]
By law, religious communities must register by the State Committee on Religious Affairs (SCRA) and with local authorities. Registration with SCRA requires a charter, a list of 10 or more members, and evidence of local government approval prayer site location. Religious groups that do not have a physical structure are not allowed to gather publicly for prayer. Failure to register can result in fines and closure of a place of worship. There are reports that registration on the local level is sometimes difficult to obtain.[175] People under the age of 18 are barred from public religious practice.[176]
Bukharan Jews had lived in Tajikistan since the second century BC. In the 1940s, the Jewish community of Tajikistan numbered nearly 30,000 people. Most were Persian-speaking Bukharan Jews who had lived in the region for millennia along with Ashkenazi Jews from Eastern Europe who resettled there in the Soviet era. As of 2011, the Jewish population was estimated at less than 500, with roughly half living inDushanbe.[180]
The state's Ministry of Labor and Social Welfare reported that 104,272 disabled people are registered in Tajikistan (2000). The government of Tajikistan and the World Bank considered activities to support this part of the population described in the World Bank's Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper.[181] Public expenditure on health was at 1% of the GDP in 2004.[182]
Life expectancy at birth was estimated to be 69 years in 2020.[183] Theinfant mortality rate was approximately 30.42 deaths per 1,000 children in 2018.[184] In 2014, there were 2.1 physicians per 1,000 people, higher than any other low-income country afterNorth Korea.[185]
Tajikistan has experienced a decrease in per capita hospital beds since 1992 following the dissolution of theUSSR, while the number remains at 4.8 beds per 1,000 people, above the world average of 2.7.[186]
According to the World Bank, 96% of births are attended by skilled health staff, rising from 66.6% in 1999.[187]
In 2010, the country experienced an outbreak ofpolio that caused more than 457 cases of polio in both children and adults and resulted in 29 deaths before being brought under control.[188]
In the summer of 2021, coronavirus ravaged the country, and theTajik president's sister reportedly died in a hospital ofCOVID-19. According to local media, the president's sister's sons physically assaulted thehealth minister and a senior doctor.[189]
Public spending on education was relatively constant between 2005–2012 and fluctuated from 3.5% to 4.1% ofGDP[194] below theOECD average of 6%.[192] TheUnited Nations reported that the level of spending was "severely inadequate to meet the requirements of the country's high-needs education system."[192]
According to a UNICEF-supported survey, about 25% of girls in Tajikistan fail to complete compulsory primary education because of poverty and gender bias,[195] whileliteracy is "generally high" in Tajikistan.[182] Estimates of out of school children range from 4.6% to 19.4% with the majority being girls.[192]
Science in the territory of Tajikistan achieved "success" in the Middle Ages, and scientific organisations were created in the Soviet period. During the period of independence, the scientific sphere has experienced a "crisis": the annual number of patent applications for inventions decreased in 1994–2011 from 193 to 5.[199] A contribution to science is made by universities, where in 2011 6707 researchers worked, of which 2450 had academic degrees.[200]
TheYaghnobi people live in areas of northern Tajikistan. The estimated number of Yaghnobis is about 25,000. Forced migrations in the 20th century decimated their numbers. They speak theYaghnobi language, which is the only direct descendant of theSogdian language.[202]
In the country, especially among women from the indigenous population, the wearing of traditional national clothing is preserved. The seamstresses and embroiderers of regions of Tajikistan use factory fabrics and local needlework embroidery for home decoration and women's clothing. The practice of Chakan embroidery is preserved among women in certain areas, passing the knowledge down from one generation to the next.[204]
Another sport isbuzkashi, a game played on horseback, likepolo. Buzkashi may be played as an individual sport and as a team sport. The aim of the game is to grab a 50 kg dead goat, ride clear of the other players, get back to the starting point and drop it in a designated circle. It is played atNowruz celebrations.[207]
Tajikistan is a destination amongst mountaineers. 1982 expedition toTartu Ülikool 350.
^Article 2 ofConstitution: The state language of Tajikistan shall be Tajik. Russian is the language of communication between the nationalities. All nations and nationalities living on the territory of the Republic have the right to freely use their native language.
^"General information".Embassy of the Republic of Tajikistan to France. 1 March 2013.Archived from the original on 29 January 2020. Retrieved29 January 2020.Territorу – 143.1 thsd. square kilometers
^Alex Sodiqov (24 January 2011)."Tajikistan cedes disputed land to China".Eurasia Daily Monitor.8 (16).Jamestown Foundation.Archived from the original on 7 November 2019. Retrieved23 September 2018.On January 12, the lower house of the Tajik parliament voted to ratify the 2002 border demarcation agreement, handing over 1,122 square kilometers (433 square miles) of mountainous land in the remote Pamir Mountains (www.asiaplus.tj, January 12). The ceded land represents about 0.8 percent of the country's total area of 143,100 square kilometers (55,250 square miles).
^Richard Foltz,A History of the Tajiks: Iranians of the East, London:Bloomsbury, 2019, pp. 33–61.
^Richard Nelson Frye,"Persien: bis zum Einbruch des Islam" (original English title:"The Heritage Of Persia"), German version, tr. by Paul Baudisch, Kindler Verlag AG,Zürich 1964, pp. 485–498
^Xuanzang calls this regionKiumito which is thought to beKomdei ofPtolemy andKumadh orKumedh ofMuslim writers (See: Studies in Indian History and Civilization, Agra, p 351; India and the World, 1964, p 71, Dr Buddha Prakash; India and Central Asia, 1955, p 35, P. C. Bagch).
^Scholars have located the Kamboja realm on the southern side of the Hindu Kush ranges in theKabul,Swat, andKunar Valleys, and the Parama-Kambojas in the territories on the north side of the Hindu Kush inPamir andBadakhshan region in Tajikistan. See: Geographical and Economic Studies in the Mahābhārata: Upāyana Parva, 1945, p 11–13, Moti Chandra – India;Geographical Data in the Early Purāṇas: A Critical Study, 1972, p 165/66, M. R. Singh
^Dr Buddha Prakash maintains that, based on the evidence ofKalidasa'sRaghuvamsha, Raghu defeated theHunas on river Vamkshu (Raghu vamsha 4.68), and then he marched against the Kambojas (4.69–70). These Kambojas were ofIranian affinities who lived inPamirs andBadakshan.Xuanzang calls this regionKiumito which is thought to beKomdei ofPtolemy andKumadh orKumedh ofMuslim writers (See: Studies in Indian History and Civilization, Agra, p 351; India and the World, 1964, p 71, Dr Buddha Prakash; India and Central Asia, 1955, p 35, P. C. Bagch).
^See: The Deeds of Harsha: Being a Cultural Study of Bāṇa's Harshacharita, 1969, p 199, Dr Vasudeva Sharana Agrawala; Proceedings and Transactions of the All-India Oriental Conference, 1930, p 118, Dr J. C. Vidyalankara; Prācīna Kamboja, jana aura janapada =: Ancient Kamboja, people and country, 1981, Dr Jiyālāla Kāmboja, Dr Satyavrat Śāstrī – Kamboja (Pakistan).
^abGreenberg, Ilan, "Media Muzzled and Opponents Jailed, Tajikistan Readies for Vote",The New York Times, 4 November 2006 (article dateline 3 November 2006), page A7, New York edition
^"Background Note: Tajikistan". US Department of State, Bureau of South and Central Asian Affairs. December 2007.Archived from the original on 13 May 2021. Retrieved8 March 2008.
^Алюминий по-таджикски [Aluminium in Tajiki].Expert Kazakhstan (in Russian).23 (25). 6 December 2004. Archived fromthe original on 10 November 2011. Retrieved8 March 2008.
^Султанова Л. Ш., Айдинова М. А. Значение канала трансфера новых технологий для Узбекистана // Актуальные вопросы современной науки. — 2014. — № 1 (2,3). — С. 87.
^Шарипов М. М. Роль вузов в формировании и развитии инновационной экономики в Республике Таджикистан // Современные проблемы науки и образования. — 2014. — № 6. — С. 627.
Battis, Matthias (2015). "Soviet Orientalism and Nationalism in Central Asia: Aleksandr Semenov's Vision of Tajik National Identity".Region.48 (5):729–745.doi:10.1080/00210862.2015.1058632.(registration required)
Heathershaw, John; Herzig, Edmund (2013). "From Resettlement to Conflict: Development-Induced Involuntary Displacement and Violence in Tajikistan". In Heathershaw, John; Herzig, Edmund (eds.).The Transformation of Tajikistan: The Sources of Statehood. New York, NY: Routledge. p. 1991.ISBN978-1138209749.
Kılavuz, Idil Tunçer (2014).Power, Networks and Violent Conflict in Central Asia: A Comparison of Tajikistan and Uzbekistan (1st ed.). Taylor & Francis.ISBN978-0815377931.
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