Taiyuan[a] (Taiyuan Jin:[tʰai˦˥ye˩˩]) is the capital ofShanxi, China. Taiyuan is the political, economic, cultural and international exchange center of Shanxi Province, containing an industrial base focusing on energy and heavy chemicals. Throughout its long history, Taiyuan was the capital or provisional capital of many dynasties in China, hence the nameLóngchéng (龙城;Dragon City).[7]
As of 2021, the city governs 6 districts, 3 counties, and hosts a county-level city with a total area of 6,988 square kilometers and a permanent population of 5,390,957.[1]
Taiyuan is located roughly in the centre of Shanxi, with theFen River flowing through the central city.[8]
The two Chinese characters of the city's name are太 (tài, "great") and原 (yuán, "plain"), referring to the location where theFen River leaves the mountains and enters a relatively flat plain. Throughout its long history, the city had various names, includingBīngzhōu (并州) (from which the city's abbreviated single-character nameBīng (并) is derived),Jìnyáng (晋阳) andLóngchéng (龙城).[9]
During theTang dynasty and subsequentFive Dynasties, the status of the city of Taiyuan was elevated to be the Northern Capital, hence the nameBěidū (北都), andBěijīng (北京, different from present-dayBeijing).[10]
Taiyuan is an ancient city with more than 2500 years of urban history, dating back from 497 BC. It was the capital or secondary capital (陪都,别都) ofZhao,Former Qin,Eastern Wei,Northern Qi,Northern Jin,Later Tang,Later Jin,Later Han,Northern Han. Its strategic location and rich history make Taiyuan one of the economic, political, military, and cultural centers of Northern China.[7]
From about 859 BC the area around modern-day Taiyuan was occupied by theRong people. In 662 BC the Rong were driven out by theDi people.[11]
In 497 BC, the first ancient city of Jinyang was built around the southern Jinyuan District of present-day Taiyuan, by Dong Anyu (董安于), who was a steward ofZhao Jianzi [zh] (赵鞅), an upper-level official of the state of Jin.[7][12]
During theBattle of Jinyang in 453 BC,Zhi Yao diverted the flow of the Fen River to inundate the city of Jinyang, caused significant damage to the Zhao. Later,Zhao Xiangzi alerted Wei and Han, who both decided to ally with Zhao. On the night of 8 May 453 BC, Zhao troops broke the dams of the Fen River and let the river flood the Zhi armies, and eventually annihilated the Zhi army, with the help from Wei and Han.[13]
In 248 BC, thestate of Qin attacked Zhao under GeneralMeng'ao, and obtained the area around Jinyang from Zhao. Qin set up theCommandery of Taiyuan (太原郡), with the city of Jinyang as its administrative center. Although, the nameTaiyuan had appeared in historic records before, potentially referring to different regions in nowadays southern and centralShanxi, this was the first timeTaiyuan was officially used to refer to present-day Taiyuan.[11]
Between 229 and 228 BC, Qin GeneralLi Xin lead two armies that marched from the cities of Taiyuan and Yunzhong to attack Zhao's northern commandery of Dai. Three months after GeneralLi Mu's death; Wang Jian, Li Xin & Qiang Lei conquered Zhao.[citation needed]
In 221 BC,Qin conquered the rest of China, and officially started the first imperial dynasty of China. Qin established thirty-sixcommanderies on its territory, and Taiyuan was one of them. Also, the capital of commandery of Taiyuan was Jinyang.[14]
Fu Jian died in 384. His sonFu Pi declared himself an emperor in 385, with Jinyang (central city of Taiyuan) as the capital. But the next year, Fu Pi was defeated by theWestern Yan princeMurong Yong in 386, and Taiyuan became part of Western Yan.[citation needed]
A sitting bodhisattva statue originally fromTianlongshan Grottoes, currently in Museum Rietberg, Zürich
In 386,Tuoba Gui foundedNorthern Wei. In 396, Northern Wei expanded to Taiyuan.In 534,Eastern Wei was founded byGao Huan, with the capital at the city ofYe, and Taiyuan as the alternative capital (别都), where the Mansion of the "Great Chancellor" Gao Huan (大丞相府) was located.
In 577, Taiyuan was conquered and became part ofNorthern Zhou.
Main battles involved for the establishment of the Tang dynasty originated from Taiyuan.
In 581,Emperor Wen of Sui foundedSui dynasty. Jinyang was first the administrative center of Bing Zhou (并州), which was changed intoTaiyuan Commandery.In 617,Li Yuan rose in rebellion based in Taiyuan, and expanded quickly.
In 618,Li Yuan foundedTang dynasty, which is generally considered a golden age of Chinese civilization. Taiyuan expanded significantly during the Tang dynasty, partly because Taiyuan was the military base of the founding emperorsLi Yuan andLi Shimin. AsLi Shimin wrote in 619: "Taiyuan, the base of the imperial regime and the foundation of the state." (太原，王业所基，国之根本)[15]
In 690,Wu Zetian set Taiyuan as the Northern Capital, (北都;Běidū), one of the three capitals, along withChang'an andLuoyang, as depicted in the poem byLi Bai: "The king of the heaven has three capitals, the Northern capital is one of them." ("天王三京，北都居一").[10] In 742 AD,Emperor Xuanzong of Tang changed its name further toBeijing (北京). During the Tang dynasty, the titleNorthern Capital to Taiyuan had been endowed or abolished multiple times.[14]
In 923,Li Cunxu, son ofLi Keyong, foundedLater Tang with capital ofDaming, and soon conquered most of North China, and ended Later Liang. Afterwards, Li Cunxu moved the capital fromDaming toLuoyang, and Taiyuan was set as a provisional capital, titled "Beidu" (北都, literally 'Northern Capital').[16]
The hall of the holy mother in Jinci, constructed from 1023 to 1032 during the Song dynasty
Zhao Kuangyin (Emperor Taizu of Song) established theSong dynasty and embarked on the campaign of re-unification of China. Using a power struggle at theNorthern Han courtTaizu moved against it in the late 968.[17] By early 969 his armies encircled Taiyuan and defeated the reinforcements sent by theKhitan. However, an attempt to flood the city failed. The siege was lifted after three months, as heavy rains caused diseases in the besieging army, the supplies were running low, and anotherKhitan relief force was advancing towards the city.[17]
Taizu launched the second invasion ofNorthern Hanin September 969, but the armies were recalled after his death (November 14,969).[17]
Taizu's brotherTaizong subjugated the last independent kingdoms in the south of China by 978, and in 979 launched the third campaignagainst theNorthern Han and its overlord theKhitan state ofLiao. Using the north-western route instead of the southern (used in the previous campaigns) the armies ofTaizong defeated amajorLiao force. Isolated, the Northern Han resisted for onlyfifteen days before surrendering. In contrast to the mild policies of his brother, Taizong dealt harshly with the city. He ordered the flooding of Taiyuan by releasing theFen River, and set the city on fire.[17] The former capital was downgraded from prefecture to county town status.
It was not until 982 that a new city was founded on the banks of theFen River. The oldest existing building in Taiyuan today is the Temple of the Goddess (simplified Chinese:圣母殿;traditional Chinese:聖母殿) inside theJin Ci Complex. It was originally built in 1023 and reconstructed in 1102.
From 1027 one of the two private markets forTangut goods, particularly salt, operated in Taiyuan.[18] During theSong period many people, including the family of chancellorWang Anshi, migrated south.[19]
The Mongol empire emerged in 1206 under the leadership ofGenghis Khan, and it expanded quickly. In 1218, Taiyuan was conquered by the Mongol army led by GeneralMuqali.Kublai Khan established theYuan dynasty in 1271, and the administrative area of Taiyuan Lu (太原路) was expanded.
The TaoistLongshan Grottoes was built in early Yuan dynasty, initiated by Taoist monk Song Defang (宋德芳).
The Ming dynasty installedNine Military Garrisons to defend the northern territory during the reign of theHongzhi Emperor, which included the Garrison of Taiyuan (太原镇).
Shanxi merchants became prominent in Chinese business history since the beginning of Ming dynasty, thanks to the logistic requirements of the military around the borders of northern Shanxi to defend Ming against the remnant MongolNorthern Yuan dynasty.
Throughout the Qing dynasty, the international trade with Russia, especially of tea, and the creation and development of so-called draft banks, orPiaohao, boosted the central Shanxi basin to become the financial center of Qing China. Even though most of these Piaohao were based in different neighboring counties ofQi County,Taigu, andYuci, Taiyuan became a significant trading center, due to its political and economical status in Shanxi.[20][21]
In 1900, theTaiyuan Massacre occurred, during which a number of Western missionaries were killed.[22]
Taiyuan Cathedral, photographed by Edouard Chavannes in 1907
The warlordYan Xishan retained control of Shanxi from theXinhai Revolution in 1911 to the end of theChinese Civil War in 1949. Taiyuan consequently flourished as the center of his comparatively progressive province and experienced extensive industrial development. It was linked by rail both to the far southwest of Shanxi and toDatong in the north. Until the end of theChinese Civil War in 1949, Yan's arsenal in Taiyuan was the only factory in China sufficiently advanced to produce field artillery. Because Yan succeeded in keeping Shanxi uninvolved in most of the major battles between rival warlords that occurred in China during the 1910s and 1920s, Taiyuan was never taken from Yan by an invading army until theJapanese conquered it in 1937.[23]
Chinese soldiers and civilians celebrating the victory atPingxingguan in 1937
Yan was aware of the threat posed by the Japanese; and, in order to defend against the impending Japanese invasion of Shanxi, Yan entered into a secret "united front" agreement with the Communists in November 1936. After concluding his alliance with the Communists, he allowed agents underZhou Enlai to establish a secret headquarters in Taiyuan.[24] Yan, under the slogan "resistance against the enemy and defense of the soil", attempted to recruit young patriotic intellectuals to his government from across China. By 1936 Taiyuan became a gathering point for anti-Japanese intellectuals who had fled fromBeijing,Tianjin, andNortheast China.[25] A representative of the Japanese army, speaking of the final defense of Taiyuan, said that "nowhere in China have the Chinese fought so obstinately".[26]
From the Japanese occupation of Taiyuan to the Japanese surrender in 1945, the Japanese continued to exploit Taiyuan's industries and resources to supply the Japanese army. After the Japanese army in Shanxi surrendered to Yan Xishan, 10,000–15,000 Japanese troops, including both enlisted men and officers, decided to fight for Yan rather than return to Japan. Yan also retained the services of experienced and foreign-educated Japanese technicians and professional staff brought into Taiyuan by the Japanese to run the complex of industries that they had developed around Taiyuan.[27]
Taiyuan Campaign
Taiyuan was the last area in Shanxi to resist Communist control during the final stages of theChinese Civil War. The city was taken by the Communists on 22 April 1949, after they surrounded Taiyuan and cut it off from all means of land and air supply, and taking the city required the support of 1,300 pieces of artillery.[28] Many Nationalist officers committed suicide when the city fell to a Communist army.[29]
Taiyuan lies on theFen River in the north of its fertile upper basin. The city is located at the center of the province with an east–west span of 144 km (89 mi) and a north–south span of 107 km (66 mi).[6][30] It commands the north–south route through the province, as well as important natural lines of transportation through theTaihang Mountains toHebei in the east and to northernShaanxi in the west.
Taiyuan belongs to the warm temperate continental monsoon climate, with long, dry and cold winters, hot and humid summers, short and windy spring and autumn, and distinct dry and wet seasons.[32] Taiyuan experiences acold semi-arid climate (Köppen climate classificationBSk). Taiyuan has a temperate monsoon climate. Spring is dry, with occasionaldust storms, followed by early summerheat waves. Summer tends to be warm to hot with most of the year's rainfall concentrated in July and August. Winter is long and cold, but dry and sunny. Because of the aridity, there tends to be considerablediurnal variation in temperature, except during the summer. The weather is much cooler than comparable-latitude cities, such asShijiazhuang, due to the moderately high altitude. The monthly 24-hour average temperature range from −4.7 °C (23.5 °F) in January to 24.3 °C (75.7 °F) in July, while the annual mean is 10.9 °C (51.6 °F). With monthly percent possible sunshine ranging from 51 percent in July to 61 percent in May, there are 2,493 hours of sunshine annually. Extremes since 1951 have ranged from −25.5 °C (−13.9 °F) to 39.4 °C (102.9 °F), though an unofficial record low of −29.5 °C (−21.1 °F) was recorded on 7 January 1930.[33]
Climate data for Taiyuan, elevation 776 m (2,546 ft), (1991–2020 normals, extremes 1951–present)
The municipality of Taiyuan is 6,988 km2 (2,698 sq mi). Taiyuan has a forest area of 146,700 hectares. and total grassland area of 422.5 km2 (163.1 sq mi) in 2007.[39] The forest area coverage rate in the six urban districts has been increased to 21.69% in 2015.[40]
Taiyuan had suffered from severeair pollution, especially in the 1990s, and the first decade of the 21st century,[41] and once it was even listed among the ten most air-polluted cities in the world.[42] Recently, the air quality has been gradually improved with increasing public awareness of air quality control and stricter and more detailed rules for pollution applied. However, according to the 2014 statistical book issued by theNational Bureau of Statistics, even though no longer among the worst polluted cities in China, Taiyuan still has below-average ambient air quality, compared with other major Chinese cities.[43] A 2019 study estimated that in 2016, there were 228,000 households in the city burning coal, burning a total of 1,096,000 tons that year alone.[44] The authors of the study suggested that the local government should do more to transition from coal energy to gas energy, provide more electrical heating infrastructure, and transition to more renewable energy sources.[44] In recent years, the city has taken further action to combat air pollution, creating a "coal-free zone" of 1,460 km2 in 2017.[45] This zone prevents most people and organizations from buying, selling, storing, transporting, burning, or using coal.[45] In 2019, the Taiyuan City Government expanded the size of this zone slightly, to a total of 1,574 km2.[45]
As of the 2020 census, Taiyuan prefecture had a total population of 5,304,061 inhabitants on 6,959 km2 (2,687 sq mi), from whom 4,529,141 lived in the 6 urban districts on 1,460 km2 (560 sq mi).[46]
Consistent with China's economic expansion throughout the 2010s, Taiyuan's economy has shown consistent growth in recent years. In 2018, Taiyuan's GDP was worth 388.450 billion Yuan, more than double what it was in 2010.[47] Disposable income per capita was reported to be 31,031 Yuan in 2018, a 7.2% increase from 2017.[48] In 2015, Taiyuan imported 4,085.130 million USD worth of goods,[49] and exported 6,592.250 million USD worth.[50] Taiyuan's primary, secondary, and tertiary industries were worth 3.9 billion yuan, 105.2 billion yuan, and 132.2 billion yuan respectively in 2007.[51] Shanxi produces a quarter of China's coal, and Taiyuan is the location of theChina Taiyuan Coal Transaction Center, which began trading in 2012.[52]
Taiyuan is one of the transportation hubs in North China, with highways linking neighboring provincial capitals, and airlines to most other major Chinese cities and some international cities.
The primary airport of the city isTaiyuan Wusu International Airport. It has been expanded for the landing of Airbus A380. The airport has domestic airlines to major cities including Beijing, Shanghai, and coastal cities such as Dalian.[56] International flights toTaipei andDa Nang are available.[57][58]
A 45-kilometer Middle Ring Highway circles the metropolis of Taiyuan.
Two highways on the banks ofFen River run through the center of the city.
Nine Riverside highways along the nine branches ofFen River, including the Southern Shahe river, Northern Shahe river, etc., comprise an expressway system, connecting the centralFen River bank with surrounding areas of urban Taiyuan.
The southern part of Taiyuan has three "East-West" direction highways: South Middle Ring Street, Huazhang Street and Yingbin Road, and five "North-South" direction highways: West Middle Ring Road, Binhe West Road, Binhe East Road, Dayun Road, Jianshe Road & Taiyu Road.
The western S56 Taiyuan-Gujiao Highway links Taiyuan with the western satellite city of Gujiao, and further connects Loufan.
The northern Yangxing Highway connects downtown Taiyuan with the northern suburb of Yangqu County.
Tounao (头脑;tóu nǎo; 'brain-enhancing soup'): Containsmutton,rice wine and vegetables in the soup. This dish was first created by Chinese polymathFu Shan, who was proficient in medicine, for his old and illness-ridden mother as a food substitute for the ancient medicine Bazhen Tang (literally "Soup of Eight Treasures") using only locally available food materials that have similar effects as the original medicine.[60]
Jifen footbridge onFen River and Shanxi TheaterShanxi Folklore Museum courtyard with old Confucian templeThe twin towers inside theYongzuo Temple.Jinci Temple
Taiyuan is a modern city with just a few historic buildings remaining in the centre. The remnants of old Taiyuan can be found west of the central station, north of Fudong Street and close to Wuyi Road.
One of the main tourist destinations isShanxi Museum located in West Binhe Road, downtown Taiyuan, which is among the largest museums in China.
The Twin Towers inYongzuo Temple, which are featured in the emblem of the city, have been regarded as a symbol of Taiyuan for a long time. Yongzuo Temple is at southeast of the city centre, also famous for its peony garden and martyrs cemetery.
The Chongshan Monastery, Longtan Park, andYingze Park (just offYingze Street), in the city centre, are popular tourist destinations.[61]
Jinci Temple also called Tangshuyu Temple, located in Jinyuan District of southern Taiyuan, dates back to the Zhou dynasty. In Jinci, there are three treasures: the Nanlao Spring, the Beauty Status and the Queen status. The Flying Bridge Across the Fish Pond was built during the Song dynasty, which is famous for its cross-shaped structure.[62]
Along the West Mountain range in western Taiyuan, tourists can findTianlongshan Grottoes, which were gradually built over many centuries, from the northern Qi dynasty, and contains thousands of Buddhist statues and artwork. The grottoes exist today in a damaged state with many of the sculptures now missing, that visitors to the caves cannot imagine how they looked in the past. Many of the sculptures from the caves are now in museums around the world. However, though the sculptures may be preserved and displayed, visitors to museums cannot understand them in their original historical, spatial, and religious contexts. Researchers at the University of Chicago initiated the Tianlongshan Caves Project in 2013 to pursue research and digital imaging of the caves and their sculptures.[63]
Not far from the Tianlongshan Grottoes are theLongshan Grottoes, which is the only Taoist grottoes site in China. The main eight grottoes were carved in 1234~1239 during the Yuan dynasty.
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