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 The lowerdantian in tai chi: Taijitu (yin and yang) rotate, while the core reverts to stillness (wuji). | |
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| Also known as | Seeetymology |
|---|---|
| Focus | Taoism |
| Hardness | Forms:
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| Country of origin | China |
| Date of formation | late 16th century |
| Creator | Chen Wangting orZhang Sanfeng |
| Famous practitioners | |
| Olympic sport | Demonstration sport |
| Taijiquan | |
|---|---|
| Country | China |
| Reference | 424 |
| Region | Asia and the Pacific |
| Inscription history | |
| Inscription | 2020 (15th session) |
| List | Representative |
 UNESCO Cultural Heritage | |
| Tai chi | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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| Traditional Chinese | 太極拳 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Simplified Chinese | 太极拳 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Literal meaning | "Taiji Fist" | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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| Part of a series on |
| Chinese martial arts (Wushu) |
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Historical locations |
| Part ofa series on |
| Taoism |
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Institutions and organizations |
Tai chi is aChinese martial art. Initially developed for combat and self-defense,[1] for most practitioners it has evolved into a sport and form ofexercise. As an exercise, tai chi is performed as gentle, low-impact movement in which practitioners perform a series of deliberate, flowing motions while focusing on deep, slow breaths. Often described as "meditation in motion," tai chi aims to cultivate and balance the body’sqi (vital energy), thereby promoting both mental and physical well-being.[2]
Many forms of tai chi are practiced, both traditional and modern. While the precise origins are not known, the earliest documented practice is fromChen Village andZhabao Village inHenan on theNorth China Plain, a region where centuries of rebellions, invasions, and adverse economic and social conditions nurtured the development of a wide range of martial arts, including those of theShaolin Monastery onMount Song at the western edge of the plain.[3][4]
Most modern styles trace their development to five traditional schools:Chen,Yang,Wu (Hao),Wu, andSun. In the early 20th centuryYang Chengfu,Wu Jianquan,Sun Lutang, and others promoted and standardized the art for its health benefits in programs supported by theNationalist government,[5] an approach that was further expanded and institutionalized by thePRC government after 1949.[6] In 2020, tai chi was included in theUNESCO List of Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity.[7]
The name "tai chi", the most common English spelling, is not a standardromanization of the Chinese name for the art (simplified Chinese:太极拳; traditional Chinese:太極拳;lit. 'Taiji boxing'). The Chinese name was first commonly written in English using theWade–Giles system as "tʻai chi chʻüan". But English speakers abbreviated it to "tʻai chi" and dropped the mark of aspiration. Since the late twentieth century,pinyin has been officially adopted in China and replaced Wade–Giles as the most popular system for romanizing Chinese. In pinyin, tai chi is spelledtàijíquán.[8][9] In English, tai chi is sometimes referred to as "shadowboxing".[10]
| Characters | Wade–Giles | Pinyin | Meaning |
|---|---|---|---|
| 太極 | tʻai chi | tàijí | Taiji, the cosmological relationship of Yin and Yang |
| 拳 | chʻüan | quán | fist, or boxing |
The etymology of tai chi's Chinese name is somewhat uncertain because of the lack of a record of spoken usage. Before the mid-nineteenth century, it appears that outsiders generically described the art aszhanquan (沾拳; "touch boxing"), "Long Boxing"(長拳),[note 1]mianquan("Soft/Cotton/Neutralizing Boxing";軟/棉/化拳)[citation needed] orshisan shi (十三式; "the thirteen techniques").[11] In the mid-nineteenth century, the art began to be associated with the philosophy oftaiji (seeConceptual background).[12] This association may have originated in thewritings of the founders of Wu (Hao)-style tai chi, perhaps inspired by a tai chi classic attributed to the semi-mythicalWang Zongyue that begins with the words "Taiji is born fromWuji; it is the mother ofYin and Yang".[note 2] However, as the Wu (Hao) founders had no financial need to promote their art, their contributions to the "tai chi classics" were not distributed widely for many years. The first public association betweentaiji and the art was a poem by Imperial Court scholarWeng Tonghe describing a tai chi performance byYang Luchan.[14][15][16][17] It is not clear whether Weng was making a new connection or whether the new name was already in use. Written evidence for the Yang family's adoption of the nametaiji first appeared in a later text, possibly completed in 1875 by Yang Luchan's son,Yang Banhou, or no later than the first decade of the twentieth century by one or more of Yang Banhou's disciples.[18][19][20][16] By the second decade of the twentieth century,Yang Chengfu's disciples andSun Lutang were using the termtaijiquan in their publications, including in the titles of some of the tai chi classics. It then appeared in a book by a Chen family member, Chen Xin, published after he died in 1929.[14][21]
Chinese philosophy, particularlyTaoist andConfucian thought, forms the conceptual background to tai chi.[22] Early tai chi texts include embedded quotations from early Chinese classics like theI Ching,Great Learning,Book of Documents,Records of the Grand Historian, andZhuangzi, as well as from famous Chinese thinkers likeZhu Xi,Zhou Dunyi, andMencius.[22]
Early tai chi sources are grounded inTaiji cosmology.Taiji cosmology appears in bothTaoist andConfucianphilosophy, where it represents the single source or mother ofyin and yang (represented by thetaijitu symbol.svg)
).[23][22] Tai chi also draws on Chinese theories of the body, particularly Taoistneidan (internal alchemy) teachings onqi (vital energy) and on the threedantian.Cheng Man-ch'ing emphasizes the Taoist background of tai chi and states that it "enables us to reach the stage of undifferentiated pure yang, which is exactly the same asLaozi's 'concentrating the qi and developing softness'".[22]
As such, tai chi considers itself an "internal" (neijia) martial art focused on developingqi.[22] In China, tai chi is categorized under theWudang group of Chinese martial arts[24]—that is, arts applied with internal power.[25] Although the termWudang suggests these arts originated in theWudang Mountains, it is used only to distinguish the skills, theories, and applications ofneijia from those of theShaolin grouping, orwaijia (hard/external styles).[22]
Tai chi also adopts the Taoist ideals of softness overcoming hardness, ofwu wei (effortless action), and of yielding into its martial art technique while also retaining Taoist ideas of spiritual self-cultivation.[22]
Tai chi's path is one of developing naturalness by relaxing, attending inward, and slowing mind, body, and breath.[22] This allows the practitioner to become less tense, to drop conditioned habits, to let go of thoughts, to allowqi to flow smoothly, and thus to flow with theTao. It is thus a kind of moving meditation that allows us to let go of the self and experience no-mind (wuxin) and spontaneity (ziran).[22]
A key aspect of tai chi philosophy is to work with the flow ofyin (softness) andyang (hardness) elements. When two forces push each other with equal force, neither side moves. Motion cannot occur until one side yields. Therefore, a key principle in tai chi is to avoid using force directly against force (hardness against hardness). Laozi provided thearchetype for this in theTao Te Ching when he wrote, "The soft and the pliable will defeat the hard and strong."[26] Conversely, when in possession of leverage, one may want to use hardness to force the opponent to become soft. Traditionally, tai chi uses both soft and hard. Yin is said to be the mother of Yang, using soft power to create hard power.
Traditional schools also emphasize that one is expected to showwude ("martial virtue/heroism"), to protect the defenseless, and to show mercy to one's opponents.[5]
In December 2020, the 15th regular session of the UNESCO Intergovernmental Committee for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage included tai chi in the UNESCO Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity.[27]
Traditionally, the foundational tai chi practice consists of learning and practicing a specific solo forms or routines (taolu).[22] This entails learning a routine sequence of movements that emphasize a straight spine,abdominal breathing and a natural range of motion. Tai chi relies on knowing the appropriatechange in response to outside forces, as well as on yielding to and redirecting an attack, rather than meeting it with opposing force.[28] Physical fitness is also seen as an important step towards effectiveself-defense.
Tai chi movements were inspired by animals, especially birds and leopards.[29]
There are also numerous other supporting solo practices such as:[22]
There is no scientific evidence for the existence of qi,[31]nor any demonstrating the effectiveness of acupressure[32][33][34]or traditional Chinese medicine[35][36]beyond that ofplacebo treatment.
Further training entails learningtuishou (push hands drills),sanshou (striking techniques), free sparring, grappling training, and weapons training.[22]
The fundamental training concepts of the art are detailed in a few dozen classical texts originally written inclassical Chinese by tai chi masters, the "tai chi classics". In these texts, it is noted that the physiological and kinesiological aspects of the body's movements are characterized by the circular motion and rotation of the pelvis, based on the metaphors of the pelvis as the hub and the arms and feet as the spokes of a wheel. Furthermore, the respiration of breath is coordinated with the physical movements in a state of deep relaxation, rather than muscular tension.[37]
Tai chi is a complete martial art system with a full range of bare-hand movement sets and weapon forms, such as thejian (straight sword),dao (curved sword), andqiang (spear), which are based on the dynamic relationship betweenyin andyang. While tai chi is typified by its slow movements, many styles (including the three most popular:Yang,Wu, andChen) have secondary, faster-paced forms. Some traditional schools teach martial applications of the postures of different forms (taolu).
Taolu (solo "forms") are choreographed sets of movements practiced alone or in unison as a group. Tai chi is often characterized by slow movements in Taolu practice, and one of the reasons is to develop body awareness. Accurate, repeated practice of the solo routine is said to retrain posture, encourage circulation throughout students' bodies, maintain flexibility, and familiarize students with the martial sequences implied by the forms. Usually performed standing, solo forms have also been adapted for seated practice.[38]
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Tai chi practices involving weapons also exist. Weapons training andfencing applications often employ:
More exotic weapons include:
Tai chi's formative influences came from practices undertaken inTaoist andBuddhist monasteries, such asWudang,Shaolin, and The Thousand Year Temple inHenan.[39] The early development of tai chi proper is connected with Henan's Thousand Year Temple and a nexus of nearby villages: Chen Village, Tang Village, Wangbao Village, and Zhaobao Town. These villages were closely connected, shared an interest in the martial arts and many went to study at Thousand Year Temple (which was a syncretic temple with elements from thethree teachings).[39]New[clarify] documents from these villages, mostly dating to the 17th century, are some of the earliest sources for the practice of tai chi.[39]
Some traditionalists claim that tai chi is a purely Chinese art that comes from ancientTaoism andConfucianism.[22] These schools believe that tai chi theory and practice were formulated by Taoist monkZhang Sanfeng in the 12th century. A research project conducted by the China Sports Commission determined as much, and Wu Tunan also examined Zhang Sanfeng's contribution to Tai Chi in his book "A Study of Tai Chi".[citation needed] These stories are often filled with legendary andhagiographical content and lack historical support.[22][39]
In March 2007, the China Federation of Literary and Art Circles recognized Chenjiagou in Wen County, Jiaozuo City, Henan Province as the birthplace of Chinese Tai Chi. In August 2007, after further detailed investigation and verification of various opinions in society, the national martial arts department recognized Chenjiagou in Wen County as the "birthplace of Chinese martial arts Tai Chi."[citation needed]
Modern historians point out that the earliest reference indicating a connection betweenZhang Sanfeng and martial arts is actually a 17th-century piece calledEpitaph for Wang Zhengnan (1669), composed byHuang Zongxi (1610–1695).[12][22] Aside from this single source, the other claims of connections between tai chi and Zhang Sanfeng appeared no earlier than the 19th century.[12][22] According to Douglas Wile, "there is no record of a Zhang Sanfeng in theSong Dynasty (960–1279), and there is no mention in theMing (1368–1644) histories or hagiographies of Zhang Sanfeng of any connection between the immortal and the martial arts."[22]
Another common theory for the origin of tai chi is that it was created byChen Wangting (1580–1660) while living in Chen Village (陳家溝), Henan.[40] The other four contemporary traditional tai chi styles (Yang, Sun, Wu and Wu/Hao) trace their teachings back to Chen village in the early 1800s.[5][41]
Yang Luchan (1799–1872), the founder of the popularYang style, trained with the Chen family for 18 years before he started to teach inBeijing, which strongly suggests that his work was heavily influenced bythe Chen family art. Martial arts historian Xu Zhen claimed that the tai chi of Chen Village was influenced by theTaizu changquan style practiced at nearbyShaolin Monastery, whileTang Hao thought it was derived from a treatise byMing dynasty generalQi Jiguang,Jixiao Xinshu ("New Treatise on Military Efficiency"), which discussed several martial arts styles includingTaizu changquan.[42][43]
Under the Nationalist government, the Central Guo Shu Institute (中央國術館) in Chongqing under the direction ofChen Panling (陳泮嶺) in 1936 created a unified form combining elements of Chen, Yang, Sun and Wu forms. This was called Guo Shu Taiji (國術太極). After the retreat of the Nationalists to Taiwan in 1949, Chen Pan-ling continued to propagate the form where it is now called 99 Taiji. This frame formed the structure ofWang Shu-jin's taiji form.[44]
In 1956, the government-sponsored Chinese Sports Committee (CSC) brought together a group of tai chi masters to create a shortened tai chi form that could help improve the health of the general public, because the long traditional forms were considered too difficult for most people to learn. The result was the24-posture simplified form, developed from the traditional Yang-style long form.[6]
Another 1950s form is the "97 movements combined tai chi form", which blends Yang, Wu, Sun, Chen, and Fu styles.
In 1976, they developed a slightly longer demonstration form that would not require the traditional forms' memory, balance, and coordination. This became the "Combined 48 Forms" that were created by three 'wushu coaches, headed by Men Hui Feng. The combined forms simplified and combined classical forms from the original Chen, Yang, Wu, and Sun styles. Other competitive forms were designed to be completed within a six-minute time limit.
In the late 1980s, CSC standardized more competition forms for the four major styles as well as combined forms. These five sets of forms were created by different teams, and later approved by a committee ofwushu coaches in China. These forms were named after their style: the "Chen-style national competition form" is the "56 Form". Also standardized was the "42 Form", also known as the "Competition Form", which combined movements from multiple styles.
In the 11thAsian Games of 1990,wushu was included as an item for competition for the first time with the 42 Form representing tai chi. TheInternational Wushu Federation (IWUF) applied forwushu to be part of theOlympic Games.[45]Tai chi was added to theUNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage Lists in December of 2020, nominated by China.[46]
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The five major styles of tai chi are named for the Chinese families who originated them:
The most popular is Yang, followed by Wu, Chen, Sun, and Wu/Hao.[22] The styles share underlying theory, but their training differs.
Dozens of new styles, hybrid styles, and offshoots followed, although the family schools are accepted as standard by the international community. Other important styles areZhaobao tai chi, a close cousin of Chen style, which is recognized by Western practitioners; Fu style, created byFu Zhensong, which evolved from Chen, Sun and Yang styles, and incorporates movements frombaguazhang;[citation needed] andCheng Man-ch'ing style, which simplifies Yang style.
Around the world in the 20th and 21st centuries, some Chinese emigrants who had learned tai chi in China continued to practice it together in their new communities.[47]
Choy Hok Pang [d], a disciple ofYang Chengfu, was the first known proponent of tai chi to openly teach in the United States, beginning in 1939. His son and studentChoy Kam Man [d] emigrated to San Francisco from Hong Kong in 1949 to teach tai chi inChinatown. Choy Kam Man taught until he died in 1994.[48][49]
Sophia Delza, a professional dancer and student ofMa Yueliang, performed the first known public demonstration of tai chi in the United States at the New York CityMuseum of Modern Art in 1954. She wrote the first English language book on tai chi,T'ai-chi Ch'üan: Body and Mind in Harmony, in 1961. She taught regular classes atCarnegie Hall, theActors Studio, and theUnited Nations.[50][51]
Huang Wenshan, a Chinese-American scholar and pioneer of cultural studies, has been called "the father of Tai Chi in the America."[52] A student ofDong Yingjie and a lifelong advocate of tai chi, in 1962 with the help ofMarshall Ho'o, a former student of Choy Hok Pang, he founded theNational Tai Chi Chuan Institute in Los Angeles, and the first nationwide organization of tai chi schools in the USA, theNational Tai Chi Chuan Association.[53] In 1973 Huang wrote one of the earliest comprehensive and popular books on the topic in English,Fundamentals of Tai Chi Chuan.[54] From 1973 to 1974 Marshall Ho'o hosted a television show on tai chi broadcasting from Los Angeles, which began weekly, grew to four times per week,[55] and was picked up by other stations across the country as its popularity grew.[56] Ho'o also promoted the art in Black Belt magazine, authored a book on tai chi, and co-founded the Aspen Academy of Martial Arts.[57]
Tung Hu Ling, son of Dong Yingjie and a pioneer in the spread of tai chi outside of China, was invited for a teaching tour of Los Angeles, San Francisco, New York, Toronto, and Hawaii organized by Huang and Ho'o from 1966 to 1967[53][58] During that tour Tung taught for a term at Huang's Los Angeles school assisted by Ho'o, who said that was "the first time a tai chi master came to us."[53] Within a year Tung returned to found a school in Hawaii later led by his son Dong Zengchen and now by his grandson Alex Dong who is based in New York, while in 1971 his son Tung Kai Ying founded a school in Los Angeles now run by Kai Ying's son Tung Chen-wei, and from those centers the family has grown a global network of schools and workshops.[59][60]
Cheng Man-ch'ing opened his Shr Jung Tai Chi School after he moved to New York from Taiwan in 1964. Unlike the older generation of practitioners, Cheng was cultured and educated in American ways,[clarification needed] and thus was able to transcribe Yang's dictation into a written manuscript that became the de facto manual for Yang style. Cheng felt Yang's traditional 108-movement form was unnecessarily long and repetitive, which makes it difficult to learn.[citation needed] He thus created a shortened 37-movement version that he taught in his schools. Cheng's form became the dominant form in the eastern United States until other teachers immigrated in larger numbers in the 1990s. He taught until his death in 1975.[61]
Moy Lin-shin arrived inToronto, Canada, from China in 1970, where he started teaching tai chi and related internal arts.[62]
M°Chang Dsu Yao (1918–1992) was the first Chinese Master to introduce Traditional Chinese martial arts to Italy. After a military career and teaching martial arts in Taiwan, he moved to Italy in 1975. There, he began teaching Tai Chi Chuan, that he had learned fromYang Chengfu, and Shaolin Kung Fu. His teachings attracted numerous students, among themRoberto Fassi [it], with whom he co-authored several martial arts publications.[63][64]
NorwegianPytt Geddes was the first European to teach tai chi in Britain, holding classes atThe Place in London in the early 1960s. She had first encountered tai chi in Shanghai in 1948, and studied with Choy Hok Pang and his son Choy Kam Man (who both also taught in the United States) while living in Hong Kong in the late 1950s.[65]
More traditional practitioners hold that the two aspects of health and martial arts make up the art'syin andyang. The "family" schools present their teachings in a martial art context, whatever the intention of their students.[66]
Tai chi's health training concentrates on relieving stress on the body and mind. In the 21st century, tai chi classes that purely emphasize health are popular in hospitals, clinics, community centers and senior centers. Tai chi's low-stress training method for seniors has become better known.[67]
Clinical studies exploring tai chi's effect on specific diseases and health conditions exist, though there are insufficient studies with consistent approaches to generate a comprehensive conclusion.[68]
Tai chi has been promoted for treating various ailments, and is supported by theParkinson's Foundation andDiabetes Australia, among others. However,medical evidence of effectiveness is lacking.[69][70] A 2017 systematic review found that it decreased falls in older people.[71]
A 2011 comprehensive overview ofsystematic reviews of tai chi recommended tai chi to older people for its physical and psychological benefits. It found positive results forfall prevention and overallmental health. No conclusive evidence showed benefit for most of the conditions researched, includingParkinson's disease,diabetes,cancer andarthritis.[69]
A 2015 systematic review found that tai chi could be performed by those with chronic medical conditions such aschronic obstructive pulmonary disease,heart failure, andosteoarthritis without negative effects, and found favorable effects on functional exercise capacity.[72]
In 2015 theAustralian Government's Department of Health published the results of a review of alternative therapies that sought to identify any that were suitable for coverage byhealth insurance. Tai chi was one of 17 therapies evaluated. The study concluded that low-quality evidence suggests that tai chi may have some beneficial health effects when compared to control in a limited number of populations for a limited number of outcomes.[70]
A 2020 review of 13 studies found that tai chi had positive effect on the quality of life and depressive symptoms of older adults with chronic conditions who lived in community settings.[73]
In 2022, the U.S.A agency theNational Institutes of Health published an analysis of various health claims, studies and findings. They concluded the evidence was of low quality, but that it appears to have a small positive effect on quality of life.[74]
In addition to its health and meditative aspects, Tai Chi is practiced as a competitive sport in several formats. The most common istuishou (推手; pushing hands), in which two participants attempt to unbalance, move, or throw one another while maintaining sensitivity and control. Competitions may use fixed-step or moving-step rulesets, depending on whether foot movement is restricted. Scoring typically rewards the ability to displace the opponent through weight shifting, yielding, and redirection.
Tai Chi form routines (tàijíquán tàolù, 太極拳套路) are also performed competitively[75]. These performances are evaluated using criteria such as balance, smoothness, and technical difficulty, sometimes incorporating movements from multiple family styles.
Some organizations promotesanshou (散手; free-hand) or light- to full-contact sparring events intended to show Tai Chi's combative efficacy, though these are less common and often overlap with broader wushu competition formats.
Tournaments are held annually in Europe, Asia and the Americas[76], with some drawing over 1000 competitors.
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In its martial aspect, tai chi emphasizes defense over attack, and replies to hard forces with soft forces and vice versa.
Just as Shadowboxing (taijiquan) is having success in the West"Wudang Martial Arts".China Daily. 2010-06-17.
Wudang boxing includes boxing varieties such as Taiji (shadowboxing)Bai Shuping (白淑萍) (2009).Taiji Quan (Shadow Boxing), Bilingual English-Chinese. Translated by Luo Bin (罗斌). Beijing University Press.ISBN 978-7-301-05391-1.
強大處下柔弱處上
Constructive approaches to divining the potential usefulness of traditional therapies are to be welcomed. But it seems problematic to apply a brand new technique, largely untested in the clinic, to test the veracity of traditional Chinese medicine, when the field is so fraught with pseudoscience. In the meantime, claims made on behalf of an uncharted body of knowledge should be treated with the customary skepticism that is the bedrock of both science and medicine.
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