| History and description of |
| English pronunciation |
|---|
| Historical stages |
| General development |
| Development of vowels |
| Development of consonants |
| Variable features |
| Related topics |
InEnglish phonology,t-glottalization ort-glottalling is asound change in certainEnglish dialects and accents, particularly in the United Kingdom, that causes the phoneme/t/ to be pronounced as theglottal stop[ʔ]ⓘ in certain positions. It is never universal, especially in careful speech[citation needed], and it most often alternates with other allophones of/t/ such as[t]ⓘ,[tʰ],[tⁿ] (before a nasal),[tˡ] (before a lateral), or[ɾ].
As a sound change, it is a subtype ofdebuccalization. The pronunciation that it results in is calledglottalization. Apparently,glottal reinforcement, which is quite common in English, is a stage preceding full replacement of the stop,[1] and indeed, reinforcement and replacement can be infree variation.
The earliest mentions of the process are inScotland during the 19th century, whenHenry Sweet commented on the phenomenon.Peter Trudgill has argued that it began inNorfolk, based on studies of rural dialects of those born in the 1870s.[2] TheSED fieldworker Peter Wright found it in areas of Lancashire and said, "It is considered a lazy habit, but may have been in some dialects for hundreds of years."[3]
Most early Englishdialectology focussed on rural areas, so it is hard to establish how long the process has existed in urban areas. It has long been seen as a feature ofCockney dialect,[4] and a 1955 study on Leeds dialect wrote that it occurred with "monotonous regularity" before consonants and often between vowel sounds.[5]David Crystal claims that the sound can be heard inReceived Pronunciation (RP) speakers from the early 20th century such asDaniel Jones,Bertrand Russell andEllen Terry.[6] The CambridgeEnglish Pronouncing Dictionary claims thatt-glottalization is now most common inLondon,Leeds,Edinburgh, andGlasgow.[7]
Uniquely for English in the West Indies,Barbadian English uses a glottal allophone for /t/, and also less frequently for /k/ and /p/.[8]
Pre-glottalization of/t/ is found in RP andGeneral American (GA) when the consonant/t/ occurs before another consonant, or before a pause:
The glottal closure overlaps with the consonant that it precedes, but the articulatory movements involved can usually be observed only by using laboratory instruments.[9] In words such as 'eaten' and 'button', pronounced with a glottal closure, it is generally almost impossible to know whether the/t/ has been pronounced (e.g.[ˈiːʔtn̩],[ˈbʌʔtn̩]) or omitted (e.g.[ˈiːʔn̩],[ˈbʌʔn̩]).
However, in the same syllable coda position, /t/ may instead be analyzed as anunreleased stop.[10]
In some accents of English,/t/ may be pre-glottalized intervocalically if it occurs finally in a stressed syllable. In the north-east of England and East Anglia, pronunciations such as 'paper'[ˈpeɪʔpə], 'happy'[ˈhæʔpi] are found.[1]
There is variation in the occurrence of glottalization within RP according to which consonant follows/t/: for example, some speakers do not glottalize/t/ when/r/ follows, in words such as 'petrol' /ˈpɛtrəl/, 'mattress' /ˈmætrəs/.[11]
T-glottalization rarely occurs syllable-initially in English but has been reported in some words that begin/tə/ in some northern dialects.[12][13]
InRP, and in many accents such asCockney, it is common for/t/ to be completely replaced by a glottal stop before another consonant,[14][15] as innot now[nɒʔnaʊ] anddepartment[dɪpɑː(ɹ)ʔmənʔ]. This replacement also happens before a syllabic/n/, as inbutton (representable as[ˈbʌʔn̩]) and some pronunciations ofpattern (representable as[ˈpæʔn̩]).
Among speakers of Britain, especially younger ones, glottal replacement of/t/ is frequently heard in intervocalic position before an unstressed vowel. It is most common between a stressed vowel and a reduced vowel (/ə/,/ɪ/):
In both RP and GA,/t/-replacement is found in absolute final position:
T-glottalization is believed to have been spreading in SouthernEngland at a faster rate thanth-fronting[citation needed]. Cruttenden comments that "Use of[ʔ] for/t/ word-medially intervocalically, as inwater, still remains stigmatised in GB.[16]" (GB is his alternative term for RP). The increased use of glottal stops within RP is believed to be an influence from Cockney and other working-class urban speech.[citation needed] In a 1985 publication on the speech of West Yorkshire,KM Petyt found thatt-glottalization was spreading from Bradford (where it had been reported in traditional dialect) to Halifax and Huddersfield (where it had not been reported in traditional dialect).[17] In 1999, Shorrocks noted the phenomenon amongst young people inBolton, Greater Manchester: "It is not at all typical of the traditional vernacular, in contradistinction to some other varieties of English, but younger people use[ʔ] medially between vowels more than their elders."[18]
Recent studies (Milroy, Milroy & Walshaw 1994, Fabricius 2000) have suggested thatt-glottalization is increasing in RP speech.Prince Harry frequently glottalizes hist's.[19] One study carried out by Anne Fabricius suggests thatt-glottalization is increasing in RP, the reason for this being the dialect levelling of the Southeast. She has argued that a wave-like profile oft-glottalization has been going on through the regions, which has begun with speakers in London, due to the influence ofCockney. She says that this development is due to the population size of the capital, as well as London's dominance of the Southeast of England.[20] However, Miroslav Ježek has argued that linguists attribute changes to London too readily, and that the evidence suggests thatt-glottalization began in Scotland and worked its way down gradually to London.[21]
![[icon]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aWiki_letter_w_cropped.svg) | This sectionneeds expansion. You can help byadding to it.(July 2024) |
American and Canadian English accents featuret-glottalization, heard in the following contexts:
Glottal replacement – or even deletion entirely in quick speech – in the coda position of a syllable is a distinctive feature of the speech of some speakers in the U.S. state ofConnecticut.[22]
T-glottalization, especially at word boundaries, is considered both a geographic and sociolinguistic phenomenon, with rates increasing both in the western U.S. and in younger female speakers.[23]
{{citation}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (link)