Tā moko is the permanent marking ortattooing as customarily practised byMāori, the indigenous people ofNew Zealand. It is one of the five main Polynesian tattoo styles (the other four areMarquesan, Samoan, Tahitian and Hawaiian).[1]
Tohunga-tā-moko (tattooists) were consideredtapu, or inviolable and sacred.[2]
Tattoo arts are common in the EasternPolynesian homeland of theMāori people, and the traditional implements and methods employed were similar to those used in other parts of Polynesia.[3] In pre-EuropeanMāori culture, many if not most high-ranking persons receivedmoko.Moko were associated withmana and highsocial status; however, some very high-status individuals were considered tootapu to acquiremoko, and it was also not considered suitable for sometohunga to do so.[4]
Receivingmoko constituted an important milestone between childhood and adulthood, and was accompanied by many rites andrituals. Apart from signalling status and rank, another reason for the practice in traditional times was to make a person more attractive to the opposite sex. Men generally receivedmoko on their faces (moko kanohi), buttocks (raperape) and thighs (puhoro). Women usually woremoko on their lips (ngutu) and chins (kauae). Other parts of the body known to havemoko include women's foreheads, buttocks, thighs, necks and backs and men's backs, stomachs, and calves.[5]
Historically the skin was carved byuhi [6] (chisels), rather than punctured as in common contemporarytattooing; this left the skin with grooves rather than a smooth surface. Later needle tattooing was used, but, in 2007, it was reported that theuhi was again being used by some artists.[7]
Originallytohunga-tā-moko (moko specialists) used a range ofuhi (chisels) made fromalbatross bone, which werehafted onto a handle, and struck with a mallet.[8] The pigments were made from theawheto for the body colour, andngarehu (burnt timbers) for the blacker face colour. The soot from burntkauri gum was also mixed with fat to make pigment.[9] The pigment was stored in ornate vessels calledoko, which were often buried when not in use. Theoko were handed on to successive generations. Akōrere (feeding funnel) is believed to have been used to feed men whose mouths had become swollen from receivingtā moko.[10]
Men and a few women weretā moko specialists and would travel to perform their art.[11]
ThePākehā practice of collecting and tradingmokomokai (tattooed heads) changed the dynamic oftā moko in the early colonial period. King (see below) talks about changes that evolved in the late 19th century when needles came to replace theuhi as the main tools. The needle method was quicker and presented fewer health risks, but the texture of themoko was smooth.Tā moko on men stopped around the 1860s in line with changing fashion and acceptance byPākehā.[citation needed]
Women continued receivingmoko through the early 20th century,[12] and the historianMichael King in the early 1970s interviewed over 70 elderly women who would have been given themoko before the 1907Tohunga Suppression Act.[13][14] Women's tattoos on lips and chin are commonly calledpūkauae ormoko kauae.[15][16]
Men tended to remove facial hair to keepmoko fully visible, while some chose to grow out their hair.[17] Due to Christian missionaires having a dislike formoko, some men started covering theirmoko with facial hair. As a substitute for the decliningtā moko in the 20th century, men increasingly wore facial hair.[18]
Since 1990 there has been a resurgence in the practice oftā moko for both men and women, as a sign ofcultural identity and a reflection of the general revival of thelanguage andculture. Mosttā moko applied today is done using atattoo machine, but there has also been a revival of the use ofuhi (chisels).[7] Women too have become more involved as practitioners, such asChristine Harvey inChristchurch, Henriata Nicholas inRotorua and Julie Kipa inWhakatāne. It is not the first time the contact with settlers has interfered with the tools of the trade: the earliestmoko were engraved with bone and were replaced by metal supplied by the first visitors.[19]
The most significant change was the adjustment of the themes and conquests the tattoos represented.Tā moko artist Turumakina Duley, in an interview forArtonview magazine, shares his view on the transformation of the practice: "The difference in tā moko today as compared to the nineteenth century is in the change of lifestyle, in the way we live. [...] The tradition of moko was one of initiation, rites of passage – it started around that age – but it also benchmarks achievements in your life and gives you a goal to strive towards and achieve in your life."[20] Duley receivedmoko to celebrate his graduation from a bachelor in Māori studies.[20]
A large proportion of New Zealanders now have tattoos of some sort,[21] and there is "growing acceptance ... as a means of cultural and individual expression."[22]
In 2016 New Zealand politicianNanaia Mahuta received amoko kauae. When she became foreign minister in 2020, a writer said that her facial tattoo was inappropriate for a diplomat. There was much support for Mahuta, who said "there is an emerging awareness about the revitalisation of Māori culture and that facial moko is a positive aspect of that. We need to move away from moko being linked to gangs, because that is not what moko represent at all."[23]
On 25 December 2021, Māori journalistOriini Kaipara, who has amoko kauae, became the first person with traditional facial markings to host a prime-time news programme on national television in New Zealand.[24]
In 2022,Ariana Tikao published a book calledMokorua: Ngā kōrero mō tōku moko kauae: My story of moko kauae detailing her tā moko journey; her artist was Christine Harvey.[25][26]
Alien Weaponry bassist Tūranga Edmonds got hismoko kanohi at the age of 25.[27]
Europeans were aware oftā moko from the time of thefirst voyage of James Cook. Early Māori visitors to Europe, such as Moehanga in 1805,[28]Hongi Hika in 1820 andTe Pēhi Kupe in 1826,[29] all had full-facemoko, as did severalPākehā Māori, such asBarnet Burns. However, until relatively recently the art had little global impact.[citation needed]
Wearing ofmoko by non-Māori has been calledcultural appropriation,[30] and high-profile uses of Māori designs byRobbie Williams,Ben Harper and a 2007Jean Paul Gaultier fashion show were controversial.[31][32][33][34]
To reconcile the demand for Māori designs in aculturally sensitive way, theTe Uhi a Mataora group promotes the use of the termkirituhi,[35] which has now gained wide acceptance:[36][37][38][39]
...Kirituhi translates literally to mean—"skin writing." As opposed tomoko which requires a process of consents, genealogy and historical information,kirituhi is merely a design with Māori flavour that can be applied anywhere, for any reason and on anyone...[35]
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