 Title page of the 1758 edition of Linnaeus'sSystema Naturæ[1] | |
| Author | Carl Linnaeus (Carl von Linné) |
|---|---|
| Subject | Taxonomy |
| Genre | Biological classification |
Publication date | 1735–1793 |
| LC Class | QH43 .S21 |
Systema Naturae (originally inLatin writtenSystema Naturæ with theligatureæ) is one of the major works ofSwedish botanist, zoologist, and physicianCarl Linnaeus (1707–1778) and introduced theLinnaean taxonomy. Although the system, now known asbinomial nomenclature, was partially developed by the Bauhin brothers,Gaspard andJohann,[2] Linnaeus was the first to use it consistently throughout his book. The first edition was published in 1735. The full title of the 10th edition (1758), which was the most important one, wasSystema naturæ per regna tria naturæ, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis, which appeared in English in 1806 with the title: "A General System of Nature, Through the Three Grand Kingdoms of Animals, Vegetables, and Minerals, Systematically Divided Into their Several Classes, Orders, Genera, Species, and Varieties, with their Habitations, Manners, Economy, Structure and Peculiarities".[3]
Thetenth edition of this book (1758), published inStockholm, is considered the starting point ofzoological nomenclature.[4] In 1766–1768 Linnaeus published the much enhanced12th edition, the last under his authorship. Another again enhanced work in the same style titled "Systema Naturae" was published byJohann Friedrich Gmelin between 1788 and 1793. Since at least the early 20th century, zoologists have commonly recognized this as the last edition belonging to this series.[5][6][7]
Linnaeus (later known as "Carl von Linné", after his ennoblement in 1761)[8] published the first edition ofSystema Naturae in 1735, during his stay in theNetherlands. As was customary for thescientific literature of its day, the book was published inLatin. In it, he outlined his ideas for thehierarchical classification of the natural world, dividing it into theanimal kingdom (regnum animale), theplant kingdom (regnum vegetabile), and the "mineral kingdom" (regnum lapideum).
Linnaeus'sSystema Naturae lists only about 10,000 species of organisms, of which about 6,000 are plants and 4,236 are animals.[9] According to the historian of botanyWilliam T. Stearn, "Even in 1753, he believed that the number of species of plants in the whole world would hardly reach 10,000; in his whole career, he named about 7,700 species of flowering plants."[9]
Linnaeus developed his classification of the plant kingdom in an attempt to describe and understand the natural world as a reflection of the logic ofGod's creation.[10] Hissexual system, where species with the same number ofstamens were treated in the same group, was convenient, but in his view artificial.[10] Linnaeus believed in God's creation and that no deeper relationships were to be expressed. The classification of animals was more natural than for plants. For instance,humans were for the first time placed together with otherprimates, asAnthropomorpha. They were also divided into fourvarieties, as distinguished byskin color and corresponding with the four knowncontinents andtemperaments.[11] The tenth edition expanded on these varieties withbehavioral andcultural traits that theLinnean Society acknowledges as having cementedcolonialstereotypes and provided one of the foundations forscientific racism.[12]
As a result of the popularity of the work, and the number of new specimens sent to him from around the world, Linnaeus kept publishing new and ever-expanding editions of his work.[13] It grew from 11 very large pages in the first edition (1735) to 2,400 pages in the12th edition (1766–1768).[14] Also, as the work progressed, he made changes; in the first edition,whales were classified asfishes, following the work of Linnaeus' friend and "father ofichthyology"Peter Artedi; in the 10th edition, published in 1758, whales were moved into themammal class. In this same edition, he introduced two-part names (seebinomen) for animal species, which he had done for plant species (seebinary name) in the 1753 publication ofSpecies Plantarum. The system eventually developed into modernLinnaean taxonomy, a hierarchically organizedbiological classification.
After Linnaeus' health declined in the early 1770s, publication of editions ofSystema Naturae went in two directions. Another Swedish scientist,Johan Andreas Murray, issued theRegnum Vegetabile section separately in 1774 as theSystema Vegetabilium, rather confusingly labelled the 13th edition.[15] Meanwhile, a 13th edition of the entireSystema appeared in parts between 1788 and 1793. It was as theSystema Vegetabilium that Linnaeus' work became widely known in England following translation from the Latin by theLichfield Botanical Society, asA System of Vegetables (1783–1785).[16]
In hisImperium Naturæ, Linnaeus established three kingdoms, namelyRegnum Animale,Regnum Vegetabile, andRegnum Lapideum. This approach, the Animal, Vegetable, and Mineral Kingdoms, survives until today in the popular mind, notably in the form of parlour games: "Is itanimal, vegetable or mineral?" The classification was based on five levels:kingdom,class,order,genus, andspecies. While species and genus were seen as God-given (or "natural"), the three higher levels were seen by Linnaeus as constructs. The concept behind the set ranks being applied to all groups was to make a system that was easy to remember and navigate, a task in which most say he succeeded.
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Linnaeus's work had a huge impact on science; it was indispensable as a foundation forbiological nomenclature, now regulated by theNomenclature Codes. Two of his works, the first edition of theSpecies Plantarum (1753) for plants and the10th edition of theSystema Naturæ (1758), are accepted to be among the starting points of nomenclature. Most of his names for species and genera were published at very early dates and thus takepriority over those of other, later authors. Zoology has one exception, which is a monograph on Swedish spiders,Svenska Spindlar,[17] published byCarl Clerck in 1757, so the names established there take priority over the Linnean names.[18] His exceptional importance to science was less in the value of his taxonomy, but more in his deployment of skillful young students abroad to collect specimens.[19][page needed] At the close of the 18th century, his system had effectively become the standard for biological classification.
Only in the animal kingdom is the higher taxonomy of Linnaeus still more or less recognizable and some of these names are still in use, but usually not quite for the same groups as used by Linnaeus. He divided the Animal Kingdom into six classes; in the tenth edition (1758), these were:
Linnaeus was one of the first scientists to classify humans asprimates (originallyAnthropomorpha for "manlike"), eliciting some controversy for placing people amonganimals, thus not ruling overnature.[20] He distinguished humans (Homo sapiens) fromHomo troglodytes, a species of human-like creatures with exaggerated ornon-human characteristics, despite finding limited evidence.[20] He dividedHomo sapiens into fourvarieties, corresponding with the four knowncontinents andfour temperaments (some editions also classifyFeruswild children andMonstrosusmonstrous to accommodateadaptations toextreme environments).[21] The first edition includedEuropæus albescens (whitish Europeans),Americanus rubescens (reddish Americans),Asiaticus fuscus (tawny Asians), andAfricanus nigriculus (blackish Africans).[11] The 10th edition solidified these descriptions by removing the "ish" qualifiers (e.g.albus "white" instead ofalbescens "whitish") and revising the characterization ofAsiaticus fromfuscus (tawny) toluridus (pale yellow).[11][22] It also incorporatesbehavioral andcultural traits that theLinnean Society recognizes as having cementedcolonialstereotypes and provided one of the foundations forscientific racism.[12]
The orders and classes of plants, according to hisSystema Sexuale, were never intended to represent natural groups (as opposed to hisordines naturales in hisPhilosophia Botanica), but only for use in identification. They were used in that sense well into the 19th century.
The Linnaean classes for plants, in theSexual System, were:
Linnaeus's taxonomy ofminerals has long since fallen out of use. In the 10th edition, 1758, of theSystema Naturæ, the Linnaean classes were:
Gmelin's 13th (decima tertia) edition ofSystema Naturae (1788–1793) should be carefully distinguished from the more limitedSystema Vegetabilium first prepared and published byJohan Andreas Murray in 1774 (but labelled as "thirteenth edition").[15]
| Edition | Location | Year | Complete bibliographical citation | Links to online versions |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Leiden | 1735 | Linnæus, C. 1735. Systema naturæ, sive regna tria naturæ systematice proposita per classes, ordines, genera, & species. – pp. [1–12]. Lugduni Batavorum. (Haak) | Missouri Botanical Garden |
| 2 | Stockholm | 1740 | Linnæus, C. 1740. Systema naturæ in quo naturæ regna tria, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, systematice proponuntur. Editio secunda, auctior. – pp. [1–2], 1–80. Stockholmiæ. (Kiesewetter) | Internet Archive |
| 3 | Halle | 1740 | Lange, J. J. 1740. Caroli Linnaei systema natvrae, sive Regna tria natvrae systematice proposita per classes, ordines, genera et species. Caroli Linnaei Natur-Systema, oder die in ordentlichem Zusammenhange vorgetragene drey Reiche der Natur nach ihren Classen, Ordnungen, Geschlechtern und Arten, in die deutsche Sprache übersetzet und mit einer Vorrede herausgegeben von Johann Joachim Langen. – pp. [1–8], 1–70, [1]. Halle. (Gebauer) | Bayerische Staatsbibliothek |
| 4 | Paris | 1744 | Linnæus, C. 1744. Systema naturæ in quo proponuntur naturæ regna tria secundum classes, ordines, genera & species. Editio quarta ab auctore emendata & aucta. Accesserunt nomina Gallica. – pp. i–xxvi, [1], 1–108. Parisiis. (David.) | Google Books CSIC Madrid |
| 5 | Halle | 1747 | Agnethler, M. G. 1747.Caroli Linnæi systema natvræ in qvo natvræ regna tria, secvndvm classes, ordines, genera, species, systematice proponvntvr. Recvsvm et societatis, qvæ impensas contvlit, vsvi accommodatvm. Editio altera avctior et emendatior. – pp. 1–88. Halæ Magdebvrgicæ. | Bayerische Staatsbibliothek |
| 6 | Stockholm | 1748 | Linnæus, C. 1748. Systema naturæ sistens regna tria naturæ, in classes et ordines, genera et species redacta tabulisque æneis illustrata. Editio sexta, emendata et aucta. – pp. [1–3], 1–224, [1–18], Tab. I–VIII. Stockholmiæ. (Kiesewetter) | SUB Göttingen |
| 7 | Leipzig | 1748 | Linnæus, C. 1748. Systema naturæ sistens regna tria naturæ, in classes et ordines, genera et species redacta tabulisque æneis illustrata. Secundum sextam Stockholmiensem emendatam & auctam editionem. – pp. [A], [1–5], 1–224, [1–22], Tab. I–VIII. Lipsiae. (Kiesewetter) | Bayerische Staatsbibliothek |
| 8 | Stockholm | 1753 | Haartman, J. J. 1753. Caroli Linnæi Indelning i Ö̈rt-Riket, efter Systema Naturae, på Swenska öfwersatt af Johan J. Haartman. – pp. [1–12], 1–136, [1–8]. Stockholm. (Salvius) | Umeå UB |
| 9 | Leiden | 1756 | Linnæus, C. 1756. Systema naturæ sistens regna tria naturæ in classes et ordines, genera et species redacta, tabulisque æneis illustrata. Accedunt vocabula gallica. Editio multo auctior & emendatior. – pp. [1–7], 1–227, [1–19], Tab. I–VIII. Lugduni Batavorum. (Haak) | New York Botanical Garden Bayerische Staatsbibliothek |
| 10, Vol. 1 | Stockholm | 1758 | Linnæus, C. 1758. Systema naturæ per regna tria naturæ, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Tomus I. Editio decima, reformata. – pp. [1–4], 1–824. Holmiæ. (Salvius) | Bayerische Staatsbibliothek SUB Göttingen Missouri Botanical Garden |
| 10, Vol. 2 | Stockholm | 1759 | Linnæus, C. 1759. Systema naturæ per regna tria naturæ, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Tomus II. Editio decima, reformata. – pp. [1–4], 825–1384. Holmiæ. (Salvius) | Missouri Botanical Garden |
| 11, Vol. 1 | Halle | 1760 | Linnaeus, C. 1760. Systema natvrae per regna tria natvrae, secvndvm classes, ordines, genera, species, cvm characteribvs, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Tomvs I. Praefactvs est Ioannes Ioachimvs Langivs. Ad editionem decimam reformatam Holmiensem. – pp. [1–8], 1–824. Halae Magdebvrgicae. (Curt). (Linnæus 1758: p. 5 recorded probably this edition as from Leipzig 1762, "nil additum" = nothing added) | New York Botanical Garden (pp. [1–8], 1–338) New York Botanical Garden (pp. 339–824) |
| 12, Vol. 1, part 1 | Stockholm | 1766 | Linné, C. a 1766. Systema naturæ per regna tria naturæ, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Tomus I. Editio duodecima, reformata. – pp. 1–532. Holmiæ. (Salvius) | SUB Göttingen Bayerische Staatsbibliothek |
| 12, Vol. 1, part 2 | Stockholm | 1767 | Linné, C. a 1767. Systema naturæ, Tom. I. Pars II. Editio duodecima reformata. – pp. 533–1327, [1–37]. Holmiæ. (Salvius) | SUB Göttingen Bayerische Staatsbibliothek |
| 12, Vol. 2 | Stockholm | 1767 | Linné, C. a 1767. Systema naturæ per regna tria naturæ, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus & differentiis. Tomus II. – pp. 1–735, [1–16], 1–142, [1–2]. Holmiæ. (Salvius) | |
| 12, Vol. 3 | Stockholm | 1768 | Linné, C. a 1768. Systema naturæ per regna tria naturæ, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus & differentiis. Tomus III. – pp. 1–236, [1–20], Tab. I–III. Holmiæ. (Salvius) | SUB Göttingen |
| 12a ("13"), Vol. 1, part. 1 | Vienna | 1767 | Linné, C. a 1767. Systema naturæ per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Tomus I. Editio decima tertia, ad editionem duodecimam reformatam Holmiensem. – pp. 1–532. Vindobonae. (Trattnern) | NCSU Libraries Missouri Botanical Garden Google Books |
| 12a ("13"), Vol. 1, part 2 | Vienna | 1767 | Linné, C. a [1767]. Systema naturæ. Tom. I. Pars II. – pp. [1–2], 1–1327, [1–37]. Vindobonae. (Trattnern) | NCSU Libraries Missouri Botanical Garden Google Books |
| 12a ("13"), Vol. 2 | Vienna | 1770 | Linné, C. a 1770. Systema natvrae per regna tria natvrae, secvndvm classes, ordines, genera, species cvm characteribvs, et differentiis. Tomvs II. Editio decima tertia, ad editionem duodecimam reformatam Holmiensem. – 1–736, [1–6]. Vindobonae. (Trattnern) | NCSU Libraries Missouri Botanical Garden New York Botanical Garden Google Books |
| 12a ("13"), Vol. 3 | Vienna | 1770 | Linnaeus, C. 1770. Systema natvrae per regna tria natvrae, secvndvm classes, ordines, genera, species cvm characteribvs, et differentiis. Tomvs III. – 1–236, [1–19]. Vindobonae. (Trattnern) | NCSU Libraries Missouri Botanical Garden Google Books |
| 12b, Vol. 1 | Göttingen | 1772 | Beckmann, J. 1772.Caroli a Linné systema naturae ex editione duodecima in epitomen redactum et praelectionibus academicis accommodatum a Iohanne Beckmanno. Tomus I. Regnum Animale. – pp. [1–5], 1–240, [1–10]. Gottingae. (Vandenhoeck) | NCSU Libraries |
| 12b, Vol. 2 | Göttingen | 1772 | Beckmann, J. 1772.Caroli a Linné systema naturae ex editione duodecima in epitomen redactum et praelectionibus academicis accommodatum a Iohanne Beckmanno. Tomus II. Regnum Vegetabile. – pp. 1–356, [1–32]. Gottingae. (Vandenhoeck) | NCSU Libraries |
| 13, Vol. 1, part 1 | Leipzig | 1788 | Gmelin, J. F. 1788. Caroli a Linné systema naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Tomus I. Editio decima tertia, aucta, reformata. – pp. [1–12], 1–500. Lipsiae. (Beer) | Missouri Botanical Garden NCSU Libraries |
| 13, Vol. 1, part 2 | Leipzig | [1789] | Gmelin, J. F. [1789]. Caroli a Linné, systema naturae. Tom. I. Pars II. – pp. 501–1032. Lipsiae. (Beer) | Missouri Botanical Garden NCSU Libraries |
| 13, Vol. 1, part 3 | Leipzig | [1789] | Gmelin, J. F. [1789]. Caroli a Linné, systema naturae. Tom. I. Pars III. – pp. 1033–1516. Lipsiae. (Beer) | Missouri Botanical Garden NCSU Libraries |
| 13, Vol. 1, part 4 | Leipzig | [1790] | Gmelin, J. F. [1790]. Caroli a Linné, systema naturae. Tom. I. Pars IV. – pp. 1517–2224. Lipsiae. (Beer) | Missouri Botanical Garden NCSU Libraries |
| 13, Vol. 1, part 5 | Leipzig | [1790] | Gmelin, J. F. [1790]. Caroli a Linné, systema naturae. Tom. I. Pars V. – pp. 2225–3020. Lipsiae. (Beer) | Missouri Botanical Garden NCSU Libraries |
| 13, Vol. 1, part 6 | Leipzig | [1791] | Gmelin, J. F. [1791]. Caroli a Linné, systema naturae. Tom. I. Pars VI. – pp. 3021–3910. Lipsiae. (Beer) | Missouri Botanical Garden NCSU Libraries |
| 13, Vol. 1, part 7 | Leipzig | [1792] | Gmelin, J. F. [1792]. Caroli a Linné, systema naturae. Tom. I. Pars VII. – pp. [1], 3911–4120. Lipsiae. (Beer) | Missouri Botanical Garden |
| 13, Vol. 2, part 1 | Leipzig | 1791 | Gmelin, J. F. 1791. Caroli a Linné systema naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus et differentiis. Tomus II. Editio decima tertia, aucta, reformata. – pp. [1], I–XL, 1–884. Lipsiae. (Beer) | Missouri Botanical Garden NCSU Libraries Bayerische Staatsbibliothek |
| 13, Vol. 2, part 2 | Leipzig | [1791]? | Caroli a Linné, systema naturae. Tom. II. Pars II. – pp. [1], 885–1661, [1]. Lipsiae. (Beer) | Missouri Botanical Garden Bayerische Staatsbibliothek |
| 13, Vol. 3 | Leipzig | 1793 | Gmelin, J. F. 1793. Caroli a Linné (...) systema naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus et differentiis. Tomus III. Editio decima tertia, aucta, reformata. – pp. 1–476. Lipsiae. (Beer) | Missouri Botanical Garden NCSU Libraries Bayerische Staatsbibliothek |
The dates of publication for Gmelin's edition were the following:[24]
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: publisher location (link)
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