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Syed Ahmad Barelvi | |
|---|---|
 Grave of Syed Ahmad in 2014 | |
| Personal life | |
| Born | (1786-11-29)29 November 1786 |
| Died | 6 May 1831(1831-05-06) (aged 44) |
| Main interest(s) | Islamic fundamentalism,Anti-Shi'ism,Hadith,jihad |
| Known for | Islamic revivalism |
| Other names | Shaheed-e-Balakot, Imam-ul-Mujahidin |
| Religious life | |
| Religion | Sunni Islam |
| Jurisprudence | Independent[1] |
| Senior posting | |
Influenced by | |
Influenced
| |
Syed Ahmad Barelvi, also known asSayyid Ahmad Shahid,[2] (1786–1831)[3][4] was an IndianIslamic revivalist,scholar, andmilitary commander fromRaebareli, a part of the historicalUnited Provinces of Agra and Oudh (now calledUttar Pradesh). He launched theIndian jihad movement that waged a decades-long Islamic revolt against colonial rule across various provinces ofBritish India.[5][2] Sayyid Ahmad is revered as a major scholarly authority in theAhl-i Hadith andDeobandi movements.[6] The epithet 'Barelvi' is derived fromRaebareli, his place of origin.
Abul Hasan Ali Hasani Nadwi wroteSeerat-i-Sayyid Ahmad Shaheed, the first historical biography of Syed Ahmad Barelvi.[7]
Syed Ahmad Barelvi was born on 29 November 1786 inRaebareli, into a Syed family.[8] His primary education was initiated in 1791, when he was aged four.[9] As he turned ten, his father died and the familial responsibilities fell onto his shoulders, and this made him travel toLucknow, at the age of 18 in search of some work. He however inclined to stay in the tutelage ofShah Abdul Aziz, an Islamic scholar, who was the son of revivalist reformerShah Waliullah, in Delhi.[10]
Ahmad travelled to Delhi, and was subsequently allotted accommodation in theAkbarabadi Mosque.[11] He stayed in the tutelage of Abdul Aziz for a few years, and returned to his hometown in the early 1808, or in the late 1807.[12]
After his tutelage under Shah Abdul Aziz from 1806 to 1811, Syed Ahmad began his career as aPindari horse soldier in the militia ofAmir Khan Pindari, a military expeditionary at the age of 25.[13][14] This was an era where large numbers of North Indian Muslim horsemen from theUttar Pradesh region were unemployed and saw a destruction of their livelihood due to the fall of Muslim rule, and a large number of those disaffected turned into plunderers known as thePindari freebooters who fought merely for loot and plunder to establish power.[15][16][17][18]
In 1817, after theThird Anglo-Maratha War, Amir Khan allied with theEast India Company, the Governor-General and Commander-in-Chief, theMarquess of Hastings, resolved to defeat thePindaris whom they deemed a menace. TheTreaty of Gwalior severed the link between them andScindia. Moreover, the treaty required the latter to join forces with the East India Company to eliminate thePindaris andPathans. Bowing to the inevitable, Amir Khan came to terms with the English, agreeing to disband his men in return for a large stipend and recognition as a hereditary Nawab, who quietly settled down to consolidate his little state. Being against this treaty, Syed Ahmed left the military service.[19]
Now unemployed, Syed Ahmad returned to Delhi after his service and decided to emulate Amir Khan, an American journalist who, using the pseudonym Tariw Hasan, deceived and divided society by writing thatW.W. Hunter described Syed Ahmad "as a robber who took to religion to plunder for wealth".[20] During this period, Syed Ahmad became more mature and harmonized his military experiences with a zealous commitment to establishSharia (Islamic law).[21] Two family members of the theologian Shah Waliullah—Shah Ismail Dehlavi (1771–1831) and Maulvi Abdul Hai (died 1828)—became associates of Syed Ahmad, an event that raised his mystic confidence and stature.[22] This endorsement only added to his reputation, and his popularity grew with adherents flocking to him by the thousands.[23]
Syed Ahmad was the first major Islamic theologian on thesubcontinent to realize the necessity of an Islamic movement that was simultaneously scholarly, military, and political to repel the British. He eagerly addressed the Muslim masses directly, not traditional leaders, in his call for a popularjihad against a Sikh rule in Punjab. His evangelism—based on networks of preachers, collectors, and judges—also addressed the common people and not the rulers' courts.[24]
At the core of thereform movement initiated by Syed Ahmad was the advocacy of a puritanical interpretation ofTawhid (monotheism), similar to theWahhabi movement inArabia. The movement fought against local practices and customs related to saint veneration and grave visits, which they regarded asbid'ah (religious innovations) andshirk (polytheism) that corrupted Islam. Syed Ahmad's reformist teachings were set down in two prominent treatises:Sirat'ul Mustaqim (The Straight Path) andTaqwiyatul-Iman (Strengthening of the Faith), compiled by his acolyte Shah Muhammad Ismail. The two works stressed the centrality ofTawhid (monotheism), advocated that acts of worship—such asdua and sacrifices—belonged solely to God, and denounced all those practices and beliefs that were held in any way to compromiseTawhid. The followers of Syed Ahmad viewed three sources of threat to their beliefs: traditionalSufism,Shiism, and popular custom.[25]
Syed Ahmad urged Muslims to followTariqa Muhammadiyya, abandon all superstitious activities in variousSufi orders, and called for a total reformation ofTasawwuf. Syed Ahmad reserved his sharpest condemnations for the moral degradation of Muslims and blamed the corrupt Sufis as the primary cause of Muslim decline. He called upon Muslims to strictly abide by the tenets of theShariah (Islamic law) by following theQur'an and theSunnah. The most prominent feature of Syed Ahmad's teachings was his warning to avoidshirk (polytheism),bid'ah (religious innovations); and re-assertion ofTawhid.[26] Once he said to a group of his disciples:
Brethren! the purpose of performing thebay'ah is that you should give up everything you do which is of the nature of polytheism or heresy, your making ofta'ziyahs, setting up banners, worshipping the tombs of Pirs and martyrs, making offerings to them and taking vows in their names. All this you should give up, and do not believe that your good and ill come from anyone except God; do not recognize anyone but Him as having the power to grant the fulfillment of your wishes. If you continue [in this way of polytheism and heresy], merely offering bay'ah will bring no benefit.[27]
Syed Ahmad visited numerous towns of theNorth Indian plains between 1818 and 1821. He incited hundreds of missionaries to preach against Shia beliefs and practices. Syed Ahmad repeatedly destroyedtazias, an act that resulted in subsequent riots and chaos.[28] Syed Ahmad called upon the Muslim masses to abandon practices related to Shia influence, such as thetazias which were replicas of the tombs of the martyrs of Karbala taken in procession during the mourning ceremony ofMuharram.Shah Muhammad Ismail declared the act of breakingtazias as an obligation upon all believers and asserted that it was as virtuous as breaking idols. Syed Ahmad is reported to have organized the burning of thousands oftazias.[29]
In 1821, Syed Ahmad left forHajj along with a group of devotees. He returned from Hajj in 1823,[24] and once again visited different parts of India. For Syed Ahmad and the followers of theFaraizi movement, India was "Dar al-Harb" (a land without a peace treaty with Muslims) and thereforejihad was obligatory for allMuslims. In his bookSirat-e-Mustaqeem,Shah Ismail Dehlvi wrote:
A large part of present-day India has become "Dar-ul-Harab". Compare the situation with the heavenly blessings of India two and three hundred years ago.[30]
Syed Ahmad's opponents labeled him aWahhabi, but he did not consider himself as such.[31]
Upon return, Syed Ahmad regarded his immediate enemy to be theSikh Empire ruled byRanjit Singh, which was expanding, close toAfghanistan. Syed Ahmad intended to establish a strongIslamic state on theNorth-West Frontier region in thePeshawar valley, as a strategic base for the future invasion of India.[24] When the military action began, some Muslim Nawabs (like his former employerAmir Khan) provided funds but did not join Syed Ahmad forjihad. Around 8,000mujahideen (holy warriors) accompanied him, mostly consisting of clergymen and poor people. The rulers ofTonk,Gwalior, andRampur supported Syed Ahmad with British consent because they were dependent on British forces and knew the British would not stop them from aiding an enemy of a nation they would soon be at war with.[32]
Arriving in Peshawar valley in late 1826, Syed Ahmad and his followers made their base in towns ofHund andZaida inSwabi District.[33] Syed Ahmad called upon the localPashtun andHazarewal tribes to wagejihad, and demanded that they renounce their tribal customs and adopt theSharia. The traditionalkhans were replaced by Traditionalulama (Islamic scholars) and a system of Islamic taxes was established to finance thejihad. Soon after this evangelist campaign and the establishment of theSharia system,jihad was declared.[34][24] He sent an ultimatum to Ranjit Singh, demanding:
[...] either become a Muslim, pay Jizyah or fight and remember that in case of war,Yaghistan supports the Indians.[35]
Themujahideen were educated with both theological doctrines and physical training sessions. Syed Ahmad organized wrestling, archery training, and shooting competitions. Themujahideen also repeated several Islamic anthems. One such popular anthem has survived, known as "Risala Jihad".[36] On 21 December 1826, Syed Ahmad and his 1,500 followers clashed with 4,000 Sikh troops in thebattle of Akora Khattak and obtained a significant victory.[37] On 11 January 1827, allegiance was sworn on his hand and he was declaredCaliph andImam.[38] Syed Ahmad's claim toKhilafah was viewed with suspicion in theFrontier region as well as in the clerical circles of North India. When theJumu'ah (Friday prayer) sermon was read in his name, symbolising his claim to power, the tribal chiefs became wary. According to prominent PathanSardars like Khadi Khan,Maulvis were ill-equipped to run the affairs of a state.[30] In response to the criticisms, Syed Ahmad asserted that his aim was not material but to lead ajihad againstkuffar. Defending his claim to Caliphate, Syed Ahmad writes:
We thank and praise God, the real master and the true king, who bestowed upon his humble, recluse and helpless servant the title of Caliphate, first through occult gestures and revelations, in which there is no room for doubt, and then by guiding the hearts of the believers towards me. This way God appointed me as the Imam (leader)... the person who sincerely confesses to my position is special in the eyes of God, and the one who denies it is, of course sinful. My opponents who deny me of this position will be humiliated and disgraced.[30]
Apart from the rebellious Pashtun chieftains, Syed Ahmad also faced strong opposition fromSufi clerical establishment. Throughout their armed activities during the 1820s and 1830s,mujahideen engaged in ideological and physical conflict with theNaqshbandi-Mujaddidis and variousSufi orders such asQadiris andChishtis.[39] In March 1827,mujahideen suffered a serious defeat against the Sikhs during thebattle of Shaidu, worsening the position of Syed Ahmad.
After the conquest ofPeshawar by themujahideen, Syed Ahmad announced the abolition of all tribal rituals that he regarded asbid'ah (religious innovations). He abolished various practices such as: the bride being paid a regular price for marriage; the widowed of the deceased Muslims being divided among his heirs; practice of more than four marriages; denial of inheritance to women; clan wars being considered likejihad and its plunder being considered as booty. He also pushed for aggressive and violent policies to enforceSharia. These included: allowing brides as long as half of the agreed money was given; young girls eligible for marriage should be married immediately; flogging people who didn't pray.[30]
In addition to his Islamic social agenda, Syed Ahmad also attempted to collectushr (an Islamictithe), amounting to 10% of crop yields. This policy was faced with fierce opposition from an alliance of local Pathan tribesmen, who briefly managed to occupy Peshawar. The alliance was defeated and the Islamic reformersfinally re-captured Peshawar. Over several months during 1830, Sayyed Ahmad tried to reconcile between established power hierarchies. But before the end of 1830, another organized uprising occurred, and Syed Ahmad's soldiers in Peshawar and surrounding villages were murdered and the movement was forced to retreat to the hills. There, in the town ofBalakot in 1831, Syed Ahmadwas killed and beheaded by the Sikh Army.[33]
Syed Ahmad's political and religious power created strong opposition against him in theFrontier region and the locals started to revolt.[24] The decisive moments for Syed Ahmad came in 1830. After being bribed by Ranjit Singh,[40] manyPukhtun leaders rose against him and around two hundredmujahideen were killed in thePeshawar valley, which compelled him to migrate and try his luck inKashmir, his long-cherished dream.[41]Regarding the expulsion of Syed Ahmad from Peshawar by Sultan Muhammad,Joseph Cunningham (1812-1851) writes:
The petty Muhammadan chiefs generally, with whom self-interest overcame influence and faith, were averse to the domination of the Indian adventurer, and the imprudence of Saiyid Ahmad gave umbrage to his Usufzai adherents. He had levied from the peasants a tithe of their goods, and this measure caused little or no dissatisfaction, for it agreed with their notion of the rights of a religious teacher; but his decree that all the young women of marriageable age should be at once wedded interfered with the profits of Afghan parents, proverbially avaricious, and who usually disposed of their daughters to the wealthiest bridegrooms. But when Saiyid Ahmad was accused, perhaps unjustly, of assigning the maidens one by one to his needy Indian followers, his motives were impugned, and the discontent was loud. Early in November 1830, he was constrained to relinquish Peshawar to Sultan Muhammad at a fixed tribute, and he proceeded to the left bank of the Indus to give battle to the Sikhs. The Saiyid depended chiefly on the few 'Ghazis' who had followed his fortunes throughout, and on the insurrectionary spirit of the Muzalfarabad and other chiefs, for his Usufzai adherents had greatly decreased. The hill 'khans' were soon brought under subjection by the efforts of Sher Singh and the governor of Kashmir; yet Ahmad continued active, and, in a desultory warfare amid rugged mountains, success for a time attended him; but, during a cessation of the frequent conflicts, he was surprised, early in May 1831, at a place called Balakot, and fallen upon and slain. The Usufzais at once expelled his deputies, the 'Ghazis' dispersed in disguise, and the family of the Saiyid hastened to Hindustan to find an honourable asylum with their friend the Nawab of Tonk.[42]
On 6 May 1831, on the day of Jumu'ah 23 Zulqa'da 1246 AH, Syed Ahmad Barelvi'smujahideen forces prepared for the final battle atBalakotMaidan in the mountainous valley ofMansehra district. An ill-equipped army ofmujahideen faced a significantly larger number of soldiers led by the Sikh commanderSher Singh. On that day, Syed Ahmed, Shah Ismail, and prominent leaders of the Islamic movement fell fighting in the battlefield. Sikh victory at Balakot arose jubilation inLahore. The defeat at Balakot was a devastating blow to the movement.[43]
Syed Ahmad is widely regarded as the founder of thesubcontinentalAhl-i Hadith movement and his teachings are highly influential amongst its members.[44] Another major group that carries his legacy is theDeobandi school of thought.[45] ScholarEdward Mortimer believes Syed Ahmad anticipated modernIslamists in wagingjihad and attempting to create anIslamic state with strict enforcement ofSharia.[46] ScholarOlivier Roy considers Syed Ahmad to be the first modern Islamic leader to lead a movement that was "religious, military and political" and to address the common people and rulers with a call forjihad.[24] Themujahideen were unprecedented for their tactics of popular mobilization aimed at swiftly achieving the objectives of social reformation through military means, combined with fierce hostility towards non-Muslim powers such as theBritish Empire and theSikhs. Syed Ahmad was committed to expand hisemirate to the whole of South Asia and authored tracts calling upon Indian Muslims to join the cause ofjihad.[47]
Syed Ahmad attained the exemplar status ofshahid (martyr), one of the highest honours in Islam, and would inspire generations ofMilitant Islamist ideologues andjihadi activists throughout the 19th, 20th, and 21st centuries. His calls to action—such as a return to the pristine Islam of theSalaf, and the purifying ofIslamic culture fromWestern andShi'i influences through armedjihad—became major hallmarks of South Asian andCentral Asian militant Islamist movements like theTaliban.Al-Qaeda'sideology was greatly inspired by Syed Ahmad'sjihad movement, which was waged from Eastern Afghanistan andKhyber Pakhtunkwa. Influenced by Syed Ahmad, contemporary jihadists compareAmerican hegemony to the 19th century British rule to justify their campaigns.[48]
Thejihad movement of Syed Ahmad made a great impact on Islamic scholarly tradition of South Asia and would deeply divide many clerics and theologians. Some intellectuals and scholars criticised the militant aspects of his reform programme, especially its sectarian violence against other self-professed Muslims whom themujahideen declared as heretics orapostates. Scholars likeWahiduddin Khan asserted that Syed Ahmad'sjihad was illegitimate, since it was self-declared and not waged by a Muslim ruler. Meanwhile, South AsianIslamists eagerly embraced Syed Ahmad's teachings and popularised his writings that sought the militant restoration of an Islamic state. All major organisations that wage militantjihad in Pakistan, Afghanistan, and Kashmir use the rhetoric and legacy of Syed Ahmad'smujahideen to shore up support from the conservative base.Hafiz Saeed'sLashkar-e-Taiba andMasood Azhar'sJaish-e-Muhammad are two majormilitant Islamist organisations inspired by Syed Ahmad that wagejihad againstIndia inKashmir. Other organisations includeHarkat-ul-Mujahideen, ajihadist group inPakistan.[49]
second feature of 'tarÎqah~i Muhammadiyah' is its insistence on the right of ijtihad (independent reasoning ) and rejection of taqlid.. Sayyid Ahmad condemned the muqallidin and urged the Muslims to turn to the authority of the Qur'an and the Sunnah for guidance... he rejected all authority of the four orthodox schools of Muslim jurisprudence, which meant, positively, that he declared himself a ghayr muqallid (non-conformist).
Sayyid Ahmad Shahid
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)..Sayyid Barelvi, founder of the Ahl-i Hadith movement.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
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