Sword and sorcery (S&S), orheroic fantasy, is agenre ofliterature characterized by sword-wielding heroes engaged in exciting and violent adventures. Elements ofromance,magic, and thesupernatural are also often present. Unlike works ofhigh fantasy, the tales, though dramatic, focus on personal battles rather than world-endangering matters. The genre originated from the early 1930s works ofRobert E. Howard. In parallel with "sword and sorcery", the term "heroic fantasy" is used, although it is a more loosely defined genre.[1]
Sword and sorcery tales eschew overarching themes of "good vs evil" in favor of situational conflicts that often pit morally gray characters against one another to enrich themselves, or to defytyranny.
Sword and sorcery is grounded in real-world social and societal hierarchies, and is grittier, darker, and more violent, with elements of cosmic orLovecraftian creatures that aren't a staple of mainstream fantasy. The main character is often abarbarian withantihero traits.
TheHistorical Dictionary of Science Fiction records an example of "sword and sorcery" from 1953, where it appears in a headline of a review of anL. Sprague de Camp novel.[2] In the 6 April 1961 issue of the fantasy fanzineAncalagon, American authorFritz Leiber re-coined the term[3] in response to a letter from British authorMichael Moorcock in the fanzineAmra,[4] demanding a name for the sort of fantasy-adventure story written byRobert E. Howard.[5] Moorcock had initially proposed the term "epic fantasy". Leiber replied in the journalAncalagon (6 April 1961), suggesting "sword-and-sorcery as a good popular catchphrase for the field". He expanded on this in the July 1961 issue ofAmra, commenting:
I feel more certain than ever that this field should be called the sword-and-sorcery story. This accurately describes the points of culture-level and supernatural element and also immediately distinguishes it from the cloak-and-sword (historical adventure) story—and (quite incidentally) from thecloak-and-dagger (international espionage) story too![6]
The term "heroic fantasy" has been used to avoid the garish overtones of "sword and sorcery".[3] This name was coined byL. Sprague de Camp.[7] However, it has also been used to describe a broader range of fantasy, includingHigh fantasy.[8][9]
Heavily influenced by theadventure genre, the settings of sword and sorcery often revolve aroundAlternate history, pulling influences from early 20th centuryArchaeology andTheosophy.[7] The setting can be an Earth in the mythical past or distant future, an imaginary other world or an alien planet.[7][10] Sword and sorcery stories are also influenced byHorror,Mythology,Folklore, andScience Fiction.[11] The technological level of most sword and sorcery settings is similar to that of theancient ormedieval periods with an emphasis on swordplay.[10][12]
TheProtagonist is usually anantihero[13] who fights against supernatural evil and theoccult.[3] Unlikefantasy, the magic of a sword and sorcery story comes at a substantial cost, or what can be described as ahard magic system. Although the main character mostly behaves heroically, he may ally with an enemy or sacrifice an ally in order to survive.[14][10] A hero's main weapons are cunning and physical strength. Magic, on the other hand, is usually only used by the villains of the story,[15] who are usuallywizards,witches, or supernaturalmonsters.[14] A recurring theme in the genre is adamsel in distress.[15] AlthoughRobert E. Howard was known for writing strong female protagonists such asAgnes andValeria, the 1960s onward saw an emphasis on male protagonists and underdeveloped female characters by the popular authors of the time. This issue has declined in recent years.[10][14]
In his introduction to the 1967Ace edition ofConan the Barbarian, L. Sprague de Camp described the typical sword and sorcery story as:
[A] story of action and adventure laid in a more or less imaginary world, where magic works and where modern science and technology have not yet been discovered. The setting may (as in the Conan stories) be this Earth as it is conceived to have been long ago, or as it will be in the remote future, or it may be another planet or another dimension.
Such a story combines the color and dash of the historical costume romance with the atavistic supernatural thrills of the weird, occult, orghost story. When well done, it provides the purestfun of fiction of any kind. It is escape fiction wherein one escapes clear out of the real world into one where all men are strong, all women beautiful, all life adventurous, and all problems simple, and nobody even mentions the income tax or the dropout problem or socialized medicine.
Sprague DeCamp has since received considerable backlash from the modern sword and sorcery community for fueling misconceptions about the purpose and style of the genre.[16][17] Organizations such as the Robert E. Howard Foundation and various fanzines have worked elevate the embedded themes ofsocial criticism and indicate the academic importance of the genre's relevance to the development ofexistentialist literature.[18][19]
Many sword and sorcery tales have turned into lengthy series of adventures. Their lower stakes and less-than world-threatening dangers make this more plausible than a repetition of the perils ofhigh fantasy. So too does the nature of the heroes; most sword and sorcery protagonists, travelers by nature, find peace after adventure deathly dull.[20]
Sword and sorcery experiences crossover withdark fantasy. The scale of the struggles depicted is smaller, and the main character usually pursues personal gain, such as wealth or love.[21] The opposition between good and evil characteristic of fantasy also exists in Sword and Sorcery literature, but it is less absolute and the events often take place in a morally gray area. These features are especially emphasized in newer works of the genre. The stories are fast-paced and action-oriented, with lots of violent fight scenes. Like most speculative fiction, Sword and Sorcery has been criticized for its over employment of theDeus ex machina trope.
Writers such as Howard,Michael Moorcock andSamuel R. Delany have used the Sword and Sorcery genre to address seriousthemes such asAssisted suicide,anti-fascism, liberty, anti-slavery, sex trafficking, criticism of organized religion, and the cyclical rise and fall of civilization.[22][23] Sword and sorcery is most well known for its discussion ofagency and employment of ideas related toconflict theory. While sword and sorcery employs a wide variety ofnarrative conflicts, the most typical structure is Man Vs Man, presented in the context of Man Vs Society or Man Vs God, wherein the villain of the story is a symbolic representation of a greater evil.
A quote fromThe Alexandrian summarizes a core theme found within sword and sorcery:[24]
"The mythic root of these stories is Robin Hood, whose idyllic society of Merry Men living in the barbarism of Sherwood Forest achieves the ideals of chivalry and nobility which are falsely claimed by the corrupt powers of “civilization.” ...Where civilization fails to protect the innocent (and is, in fact, often the ones victimizing them), it is the “outsider” that civilization teaches you to fear that will ultimately sacrifice to help those in need."
It is typical for the topics that sword and sorcery deals with to be divisive. Certain authors, particularly from 1960 to the late 1980s, have been criticized for excessive violence,misogyny,racism andfascism.[3][25]
In his introduction to the referenceLiterary Swordsmen and Sorcerers byL. Sprague de Camp,Lin Carter notes that the heritage of sword and sorcery is illustrious, and can be traced back to mythology, including the labors ofHercules, as well as to classical epics such asHomer'sOdyssey, theNorse sagas, andArthurian legend.[11]
It also has been influenced byhistorical fiction. For instance, the work ofSir Walter Scott was influenced by Scottish folklore and ballads.[26] Yet few of Scott's stories contain fantastic elements; in most, the appearance of such is explained away.[27] Its themes of adventure in a strange society were influenced by adventures set in foreign lands bySir H. Rider Haggard andEdgar Rice Burroughs.[28] Haggard's works, such asKing Solomon's Mines (1885) andShe: A History of Adventure (1887) included many fantastic elements.[29] Some of Haggard's characters, such as Umslopogaas, an axe-wielding Zulu warrior who encountered supernatural phenomena and loved to fight, bore similarities to sword and sorcery heroes.[25][30] Haggard also wroteEric Brighteyes (1891), a violenthistorical novel based on theIcelandic Sagas; some writers, (such asDavid Pringle) have stated thatEric Brighteyes resembles a modern sword and sorcery novel.[25][30] Edgar Rice Burroughs' novels featured physical formidable male heroes such asTarzan andJohn Carter of Mars. Burroughs' heroes had adventures involving the exploration of strange regions and battles with fearsome creatures. Burroughs' work was enormously influential on the initial generation of American sword and sorcery writers, such as Robert E. Howard.[30][31]
Sword and sorcery's immediate progenitors are theswashbuckling tales ofAlexandre Dumas, père (The Three Musketeers (1844), etc.),Rafael Sabatini (Scaramouche (1921), etc.) and theirpulp magazine imitators, such asTalbot Mundy,Harold Lamb, andH. Bedford-Jones, who all influenced Howard.[12][25] Mundy in particular, proved influential: early sword and sorcery writers such as Howard,C. L. Moore andFritz Leiber were admirers of Mundy's fiction.[12][30][31] However, these historical "swashbucklers" lack the supernatural element which defines the genre.[32]
Another influence was early fantasy fiction. This type of fiction includes the short stories ofLord Dunsany's such as "The Fortress Unvanquishable, Save for Sacnoth" (1910) and "The Distressing Tale of Thangobrind the Jeweller" (1911). These works of Dunsany's feature warriors who clash with monsters and wizards in realms of Dunsany's creation. Dunsany's work proved inspirational to C.L. Moore, Fritz Leiber,Jack Vance, andKarl Edward Wagner.[12][30]The Worm Ouroboros (1922) byE. R. Eddison, a heroic romance written in a mock-archaic style, was an inspiration to later writers of sword and sorcery such as Leiber.[4][30] The "Poictesme" novels ofJames Branch Cabell, such asJurgen: A Comedy of Justice (1919), have been cited as a stimulus to early sword and sorcery writing. Cabell's novels depict picaresque exploits in imaginary lands, and were an influence on Leiber and Vance.[3][33]A. Merritt's novelsThe Ship of Ishtar (1924) andDwellers in the Mirage (1932) have also been cited as influences on sword and sorcery, as they feature men from the then-contemporary world being drawn into dangerous adventures involving swordplay and magic.[30][34] All these authors influenced sword and sorcery for the plots, characters, and landscapes used.[30][35]
Also, many early sword and sorcery writers, such as Howard andClark Ashton Smith, were influenced by the Middle Eastern tales of theArabian Nights, whose stories of magical monsters and evilsorcerers were an influence on the genre-to-be.[36]
Sword and sorcery's frequent depictions of smoky taverns and fetid back alleys draw upon thepicaresque genre; for example, Rachel Bingham notes thatFritz Leiber's city ofLankhmar bears considerable similarity to 16th centurySeville as depicted inMiguel de Cervantes' tale "Rinconete y Cortadillo".[37]
Sword and sorcery proper only truly began in thepulp fantasy magazines, where it emerged from "weird fiction".[38] The magazineWeird Tales, which published Howard'sConan stories andC. L. Moore'sJirel of Joiry tales, as well as key influences likeH. P. Lovecraft and Smith, was especially important.[39] Lovecraft's fiction (especially his "Dream Cycle" of Dunsany-inspired fantasy stories) was a source of inspiration for the first generation of sword and sorcery writers.[30]
The 1929Weird Tales story "The Shadow Kingdom" by Robert E. Howard is often regarded as the first true "sword and sorcery" tale, because it pits a heroic warrior (Kull of Atlantis) against supernatural evil, in an imaginary world of the writer's devising.[12]
Science fiction authorIsaac Asimov once stated in his ownScience Fiction Magazine that "The contemporary Sword-and-Sorcery tale owes its existence to the imagination of Robert Howard and his invention of the Conan stories."[40]
Howard published only three stories featuring Kull inWeird Tales. He revised an unsold Kull story, "By This Axe I Rule!" into "The Phoenix on the Sword", which introduced a new character,Conan the Barbarian.[12][31] When "The Phoenix on the Sword" was published in 1932, it proved popular with theWeird Tales readers, and Howard wrote more tales of Conan, of which 17 were published in the magazine.[12][31]
The success of Howard's work encouraged otherWeird Tales writers to create similar tales of adventure in imagined lands.Clark Ashton Smith wrote his tales of theHyperborean cycle andZothique forWeird Tales in the 1930s. These stories revolved around the exploits of warriors and sorcerers in lands of the remote past or remote future, and often had downbeat endings.[3][31]C. L. Moore, inspired by Howard, Smith and H. P. Lovecraft, created theJirel of Joiry stories forWeird Tales, which brought in the first sword and sorcery heroine.[3][12] Moore's future husbandHenry Kuttner createdElak of Atlantis, a Howard-inspired warrior hero, forWeird Tales in 1938.[12][31]
Following a change of ownership in 1940,Weird Tales ceased to publish sword and sorcery stories.[41] However, the pulp magazineUnknown Worlds continued to publish sword and sorcery fiction byFritz Leiber andNorvell W. Page.[9][12][42] Leiber's stories revolved around a duo of heroes calledFafhrd and the Gray Mouser, and dealt with their adventures in the world of Nehwon ("No-When" backwards). Leiber's stories featured more emphasis on characterisation and humour than previous sword and sorcery fiction, and his characters became popular withUnknown's readers.[43] Page's sword and sorcery tales centred onPrester John, a Howard-inspired gladiator adventurer, whose exploits took place in Central Asia in the first century CE.[42]
With the diminution of pulp magazine sales in the late 1940s, the focus of sword and sorcery shifted to small-press books.Arkham House published collections by Robert E. Howard, Clark Ashton Smith and Fritz Leiber that included some of their sword and sorcery work.[44] WriterJack Vance published the bookThe Dying Earth in 1950.The Dying Earth described the adventures of rogues and wizards on a decadent far-future Earth, where magic had replaced science.[3][9]
In the 1960s, American paperback publisherLancer Books began to reissue Robert E. Howard'sConan stories in paperback, with cover illustrations by artistFrank Frazetta. These editions became surprise bestsellers, selling millions of copies to a largely young readership.[25][45] The commercial success of the Conan books encouraged other publishers to put out new and reprinted books in the style of Howard's work.[25]
Initial works in the 1960s by other authors closely followed the Conan mould, withLin Carter'sThongor of Lemuria,Gardner F. Fox's Kothar the Barbarian, andJohn Jakes' Brak the Barbarian being the most popular of the imitators. Notably different works wereMichael Moorcock'sElric of Melnibone stories, which were designed to be in counterpoint with the barbarian trope, and the revival of interest in the originalFafhrd & Gray Mouser stories with their focus on urbane rogues, byFritz Leiber led to Leiber writing new stories with the characters that he would periodically revisit throughout the 1970s and 1980s.[8]
Despite this, the initial barbarian-focused boom crashed in the early seventies, before the mid-1970s led to newer, more varied authors and books being published with it, such asAndre Norton,David Drake,Tanith Lee,Charles R. Saunders,Michael Shea,Karl Edward Wagner, and others.[8][46]
From the 1960s until the 1980s, under the guiding force of Carter, a select group of writers formed theSwordsmen and Sorcerers' Guild of America (SAGA) to promote and enlarge the sword and sorcery genre. From 1973 to 1981, five anthologies featuring short works by SAGA members were published. Edited by Carter, these were collectively known asFlashing Swords! Because of these and other anthologies, such as theBallantine Adult Fantasy series, his own fiction, and his criticism, Carter is considered one of the most important popularizers of genre fantasy in general, and S&S in particular.[47]
Despite such authors' efforts, some critics use sword and sorcery as a dismissive or pejorative term.[4] During the 1980s, influenced by the success of the 1982 feature filmConan the Barbarian,[48] many fantasy films, some cheaply made, were released in a subgenre that would be called "sword and sorcery".
The sword and sorcery boom is said to have begun withHawk the Slayer (1980).[48][49] Other examples of sword and sorcery films includeThe Beastmaster (1982),The Sword and the Sorcerer (1982),[48]Hercules (1983),[50] a Conan sequel,Conan the Destroyer (1984),[51]Ladyhawke (1985) andRed Sonja (1985), which, like the Conan films, also starsArnold Schwarzenegger.[48] Thesword and planet film[52]Masters of the Universe (1987) contains elements of sword and sorcery[53] and has been called a Conan hybrid.[54]
Clash of the Titans (1981),Excalibur (1981),Dragonslayer (1981), andKrull (1983) are characterised as sword and sorcery films by some writers,[48][55] but this is disputed by Butler.[56]Star Wars (1977) was influenced by sword and sorcery,[3] and in turn influenced[57][58]Legend of the Eight Samurai (1983), a Japanese sword and sorcery style film.[59]
After the cinema and literary boom of the early to mid-1980s, sword and sorcery once again dropped out of favor, with epic fantasy largely taking its place in the fantasy genre. There was, though, another resurgence in sword and sorcery at the end of the 20th century. Sometimes called the "new" or "literary" sword and sorcery, this development places emphasis on literary technique, and draws from epic fantasy and other genres to broaden the genre's typical scope. Stories may feature the wide-ranging struggles of national or world-spanning concerns common to high fantasy, but told from the point of view of characters more common to S&S, and with the sense of adventure common to the latter. Writers associated with this includeSteven Erikson,Joe Abercrombie, andScott Lynch, magazines such asBlack Gate and the ezinesFlashing Swords[citation needed] (not to be confused with theLin Carter anthologies), andBeneath Ceaseless Skies publish short fiction in the style.[60] According to the literary critic Higashi Masao regarding Japanese worksGuin Saga andSorcerous Stabber Orphen, they were initially planned by their authors as novels that could be classified as belonging to the European sword and sorcerysubgenre but had various major elements that distanced themselves from the typical novels in the genre.[61]
In the 1990s, sword and sorcery boomed in popularity inGreat Britain and other parts of the world.[62]
Robert E. Howard espoused feminist views in his personal and professional life. He wrote to his friends and associates defending the achievements and capabilities of women.[63][64] Strong female characters in Howard's works of fiction includeDark Agnes de Chastillon (first appearing in "Sword Woman", circa 1932–34), the early modern pirate Helen Tavrel ("The Isle of Pirates' Doom", 1928), as well as two pirates and Conan the Barbarian supporting characters, Bêlit ("Queen of the Black Coast", 1934), and Valeria of the Red Brotherhood ("Red Nails", 1936).[65]
Introduced as the co-star in a non-fantasy historical story by Howard entitled "The Shadow of the Vulture", Red Sonya of Rogatino later inspired a fantasy heroine namedRed Sonja, who first appeared in the comic book seriesConan the Barbarian written byRoy Thomas and illustrated byBarry Windsor-Smith. Red Sonja got her own comic book title and eventually a series of novels byDavid C. Smith andRichard L. Tierney, as well asRichard Fleischer'sfilm adaptation in 1985.
Catherine Moore was another foundational author of the sword and sorcery genre during its earliest years with herJirel of Joiry stories. Several other women lead the beginnings of this genre, includingLeigh Brackett,Nathalie Henneberg, andAndre Norton.
Despite this, sword and sorcery has been criticized for having a masculine bias; This includes criticism of the aforementioned authors. Female characters were oftendistressed damsels to be rescued or protected, or otherwise served as a reward for a male hero's adventures. Those who had adventures of their own often did so to counter the threat ofrape or to take revenge for it.[38][66] These issues were particularly relevant in the 1960s through the late 1980s, but are often characteristic of even some of the earliest Sword and Sorcery stories.
Tanith Lee's 1975 novelThe Birthgrave and later novels focused on women's roles in standard sword and sorcery era narratives. TheMorgaine cycle of novels fromC. J. Cherryh, which began in 1976, also focused on a female lead while engaging in a traditional heroic fantasy lead. This led to them and other female authors being inducted into Lin Carter'sSwordsmen and Sorcerers' Guild of America.
Jessica Amanda Salmonson similarly sought to broaden the range of roles for female characters in sword and sorcery through her own stories and through editing theWorld Fantasy Award-winning[67]Amazons (1979) andAmazons II (1982) anthologies; both drew on real and folkloric female warriors, often from outside of Europe.[68][69]
Marion Zimmer Bradley'sSword and Sorceress anthology series (1984 onwards) challenged these archetypes. The stories feature skillful swordswomen and powerful sorceresses working from a variety of motives.[70][71]
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