Part ofa series on the |
|---|
| History ofSwitzerland |
 |
| Early history |
|
| Old Swiss Confederacy |
|
| Transitional period |
|
| Modern history |
|
| Timeline |
| Topical |
 Switzerland portal |
The territory of modernSwitzerland was a part of theRoman Republic andEmpire for a period of about six centuries, beginning with the step-by-step conquest of the area by Roman armies from the 2nd century BC and ending with theFall of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century AD.
The mostlyCeltic tribes of the area were subjugated by successive Roman campaigns aimed at control of the strategic routes from Italy across the Alps to theRhine and intoGaul, most importantly byJulius Caesar's defeat of the largest tribal group, theHelvetii, in theGallic Wars in 58 BC. Under thePax Romana, the area was smoothly integrated into the prospering Empire, and its populationassimilated into the widerGallo-Roman culture by the 2nd century AD, as the Romans enlisted the native aristocracy to engage in local government, built a network of roads connecting their newly established colonial cities and divided up the area among theRoman provinces.
Roman civilization began to retreat from Swiss territory when it became a border region again after theCrisis of the Third Century. Roman control weakened after 401 AD, but did not entirely disappear until the mid-5th century after which the area began to be occupied byGermanic peoples.
TheSwiss plateau, within the natural borders of theAlps to the South and East,Lake Geneva and theRhône to the west and theRhine to the north, was recognized as a contiguous territory byJulius Caesar.[1]
This area had been dominated by theLa Tène culture since the 5th century BC, settled by a mostlyCeltic population (Gauls), of which theHelvetii were the most numerous, but which also included theRauraci in north-west Switzerland centered onBasel, and theAllobroges aroundGeneva. South of the Swiss plateau were theNantuates,Seduni andVeragri in theValais, theLepontii in theTicino, and theRaetians controlled theGrisons as well as large areas around it.[1]
The first part of what is now Switzerland to fall to Rome was the southernTicino, annexed after the Roman victory over theInsubres in 222 BC. The territory of theAllobroges aroundGeneva came under Roman sway by 121 BC and was incorporated into the province ofGallia Narbonensis before theGallic Wars (58–51 BC).[2]
In around 110 BC, two Helvetic tribes underDivico – theTigurini and theTougeni, sometimes identified with theTeutons – joined the wanderingGermanicCimbri on a march to the West. In the course of theCimbrian War they defeated a Roman force underLucius Cassius Longinus at theBattle of Burdigala in 107 BC,[3] but after the Roman victory over the Teutons atAquae Sextiae in 102 BC, the Tigurini returned to settle in the Swiss Plateau.[3]
In 61 BC, the Helvetii, led byOrgetorix, decided to leave their lands and move to the West, burning their settlements behind them – twelveoppida, according to Caesar, and some 400 villages. They were decisively beaten by Caesar in theBattle of Bibracte in 58 BC. After their surrender, Caesar sent the Helvetii home, according them the status offoederati or Roman allies, but not yet (as has previously been believed) fully subjugating them to Roman sovereignty.[2]
Caesar's policy aimed at controlling the territory west of theJura andRhine, as well as at blocking the potential incursion routes from the East along the Jura.[4] The Raetians, described as savage warriors byStrabo, continued to launch incursions into the Swiss Plateau and also had to be contained.[4] To that end, Caesar charged the Helvetii and the Rauraci with defending their territory and established two colonies of veterans – one, theColonia Julia Equestris (nowNyon) on the shores ofLake Geneva and the other throughLucius Munatius Plancus in northwestern Switzerland, preceding the largerAugusta Raurica founded by Augustus in around 6 AD.[5]
Caesar's attempt to open theGreat St Bernard Pass for Roman traffic failed in 57 BC due to strong opposition by the localVeragri.[6] Concerted and successful efforts to gain control over the Alpine region were undertaken by his successor,Augustus, as the rapid development ofLugdunum (Lyon) made the establishment of a safe and direct route from Gaul to Italy a priority.[6]
In 25 BC, an army underAulus Terentius Varro Murena wiped out theSalassi in theAosta Valley.[6] At some time between 25 and 7 BC – either following the Aosta campaign or, more likely, in the course of the conquest ofRaetia in 15 BC – a campaign also subjugated the Celtic tribes of the Valais and opened the Great St Bernard Pass.[7]
That conquest was a consequence of the Augustan imperative of securing the Imperial borders. To effectively control theAlps as the shield of northern Italy, Rome needed to control both flanks of the mountain range. Thus it had to extend its power to theRhine andDanube, thereby also opening a direct route toGermania and all of Central Europe.[7] The last obstacle in this path were the Raetians. After a first expedition against them byPublius Silius Nerva in 16 BC, a more thorough campaign byDrusus and the later emperorTiberius brought Raetia – and thereby all of Switzerland – firmly under Roman control.[7]
Thetropaeum alpium, built by Augustus in 7 BC to celebrate his conquest of the Alps, lists among the defeated peoples the tribes of Raetia and of the Valais, but not the Helvetii. It appears that they were absorbed peacefully into the Empire during the first century AD, except for their part in the conflicts of theYear of the Four Emperors, AD 69.[8]
The history of Switzerland under Roman rule was, from theAugustan period up until 260 AD, a time of exceptional peace and prosperity. ThePax Romana[9] was made possible by the protection of well-defended and distant Imperial borders and a peaceful and smoothRomanization of the local population.[10] The Romansurbanized the territory with numerous settlements and built a network of high-qualityRoman roads connecting them,[11] allowing for the integration ofHelvetia into the imperial economy.
While the Roman presence was always strong in the Alps, where the crucial North-South connection had to be kept open, theSwiss plateau was not really Romanized until decades after the conquest.[8] The principal Roman settlements in Switzerland were the cities ofIulia Equestris (Nyon),Aventicum (Avenches),Augusta Raurica (Augst) andVindonissa (Windisch).[12] Evidence has also been found of almost twenty Roman villages (vici) established in the 1st to 3rd century AD, as well as hundreds ofvillas of varying sizes built in the western and central part of theSwiss Plateau.[12] The knownvici include:[13]
The colonies of Nyon and Augusta Raurica at first had little cultural influence beyond their immediate surroundings. After Roman military defeats inGermania in 12–9 BC and 6–9 AD, the frontier was moved back to the Rhine and guarded by eight legions, of which one, originallyLegio XIII Gemina, was based in the permanent camp ofVindonissa (Windisch).[14]
Aventicum (Avenches) was likely the capital of the Helvetii since its founding at the beginning of the 1st century.[15] In the 40s, it benefited from the traffic brought over the St Bernard pass over a street expanded byClaudius,[15] and in 71 it acquired the status of a Roman colony and of an allied city. This is believed to have been a favor ofVespasian for the city in which he had lived for a time, or a measure to better control the Helvetii after the events of 69 by implanting a colony of veterans in their midst.[16]
The Alps were first administered by alegatus pro praetore inAugusta Vindelicorum (Augsburg), then by the procurator of the new province ofRaetia.[17] TheValais was split from Raetia byClaudius in AD 43 and merged with the province ofAlpes Graiae to form a new province,Alpes Graiae et Poeninae.[17]
As for the Swiss plateau, its western and central part up toAd Fines (Pfyn) was administratively part of the province ofBelgica and for military purposes part ofGermania Superior. Its eastern part belonged to Raetia.
This division, established by Augustus in 22 BC, was accompanied by a redistribution of tribal settlement areas.[14] It remained essentially unchanged untilDiocletian's reforms in the third century,[18] when parts of Switzerland each belonged to the provinces ofSequania,Vienna,Raetia Prima,Liguria andAlpes Graiae et Poeninae.[19]
The colonies of Nyon, Aventicum and Augusta Raurica were governed under republican constitutions similar to that of Rome.[20] Most governmental powers were exercised by a pair of magistrates, theduoviri, elected annually first by all citizens older than 25, and in later times by the city council orordo decurionum.[21] The 100 members of this council, which corresponded to theRoman Senate, were selected by the duomviri among former officials or priests according to their wealth, and held office for life.[22]
Augusta Raurica and Aventicum were also thecivitates, or capitals, of the non-Roman tribes of theRauraci andHelvetii, respectively. In that capacity, the magistrates of Aventicum, asduoviri coloniae Helvetiorum, also governed the entire Helvetic population, which had the legal status ofincolae (inhabitants) invested with theLatin Right.[22] The rights of the Romancoloni, or colonists, were represented by a special authority, thecuratores colonorum Aventicensum ("Heads of the colonists of Aventicum"). Moreover, the Roman citizens of the entire territory established thecives Romani conventus Helvetici ("Association of Roman citizens in Helvetia").[22]
Thecivitas (tribal community) of theHelvetii was similar to that of the Celtic tribes of theValais, which were merged into a singlecivitas Vallensis probably around 40 AD, and givenForum Claudii Vallensium (Martigny) as their capital.[23] Parts of the modernTicino belonged to the colony ofComum (Como), founded in the 1st century AD.[20] On the local level, the basic administrative units were thevici, replacing the Helveticpagi, or tribes, which were dissolved at the time of colonization.[22] These villages enjoyed a certain autonomy and were governed by popularly elected magistrates (magistri orcuratores).[22]
While the governmental system in the central and western part of Switzerland, as described above, is well documented, nothing of substance is known about the political and administrative system in easternRaetia. However, records of the time show that a great number of local nobles held political and religious offices in Raetia, indicating that the Romans successfully co-opted the local elite.[23]
Testaments of Roman culture such as baths, floor heating and imported goods (pottery, glass, religious icons and artworks) have been found in even the poorest Roman era dwellings, indicating that Romanization was effective at all levels of society.[24]Roman public baths were found in all villages,temples with integratedtheaters – showing animal orgladiatorial combat – in most.[25]
While the superimposition of Roman culture on the local population appears to have been unproblematic and thorough, the Celtic traditions did not disappear entirely, resulting in a fusion of Roman and local culture that characterized all aspects of society.[10]Latin, the language of government and instruction, only gradually replaced the localCeltic dialects in everyday use.[26] Local artworks and religious icons of the period exhibit influences of ornamentalCeltic art, classical Greco-Roman art and even Oriental styles from the far reaches of the Empire.[27] An important incentive for the local people to Romanize was the perspective of obtaining the various degrees ofRoman citizenship and the rights conferred thereby, including the right to vote, to hold public office and to render military service.[21]
The hundreds ofvillae found in Switzerland, some very luxurious, attest to the existence of a wealthy and cultured upper class of landowners.[28] Manyvillae belonged not to Roman immigrants, but to members of the Celtic aristocracy who continued to hold their lands and their rank after the Roman conquest.[12][26] Of the lower classes, much less is known, although there are inscriptions attesting to the existence of guilds (collegia) of boat skippers, doctors, teachers and traders, as well as to the existence of atrade in slaves.[29]
In the course of Romanization, theCeltic polytheism of the local tribes was merged –syncretized – with theRoman religion. The Celtic deities came to be worshiped under the names of their Roman counterparts. ThusLugus was replaced byMercury,Belenus byApollo,Taranis byJupiter and so forth, in a practice calledinterpretatio romana byCaesar, who pioneered it.[30] Roman gods also acquired the names of local gods asepithets; thusMars was venerated asMarsCaturix, Mercury asMercuriusCissonius and Jupiter asJupiterPoeninus after the god of thePennine Alps.[30]
As oriental religions grew more popular in the later Empire – unlike the traditional Roman cults, they promised rewards in theafterlife[31] – they also percolated into Gaul. Artifacts related to the cults of gods such asIsis,Osiris,Serapis,Kybele,Serapios,Dionysos orMithras have been found at the site of every Roman settlement in Switzerland.[31]
The great significance of religion in the culture of Roman Switzerland is illustrated by the imposing size and central location of the Roman temples in the cities, as well as by the great number of religious artifacts found by archaeologists.[30] As everywhere in the Empire, theImperial cult was practiced in Switzerland; it had a particularly prominent temple in the center of theforum of Nyon.[32]
The first clear testaments toChristian communities in Switzerland date after 313, when the religion was officially tolerated with theEdict of Milan. It is however certain that, as in Gaul, the Christian faith had already had adherents for some time before 313.[31]
The firstbishop in Switzerland was eitherJustinianus, bishop of the Rauricans, in 340 (his historicity is not certain) orTheodorus, bishop ofOctodurus, in 381 or earlier.[31] The first Christian religious buildings date to the 4th century; they are found inGeneva,Chur andSaint-Maurice, known for the legend of theTheban Legion.[31]
The order and prosperity that thePax Romana had brought to Switzerland ended, as elsewhere in the Empire, with theCrisis of the Third Century. In 260, when theGallic Empire briefly seceded from Rome, the emperorGallienus withdrew the legions from the Rhine to fight the usurperIngenuus, allowing the warlikeAlemanni to enter the Swiss plateau. There, cities, villages and mostvillae were raided or sacked by marauding bands.[33] The numerous caches of coins recovered from the period between 250 and 280 attest to the severity of the crisis. Only theValais, shielded by mountains, escaped these predations.[33]
As the Empire's frontiers receded to the Rhine, Switzerland once again became a border area. Its defenses were strengthened, especially underDiocletian andConstantine, who rebuilt the roads and built castles (castra) alongside.[33] Numerous fortifications were built along the Rhine border and further south, providing for adefense in depth.[34] The border fortifications were completed byValentinian I in 371, who established a chain of watchtowers along the Rhine fromLake Constance toBasel, with each tower no more than 2 kilometers (1.2 mi) away from the next one.[34]
But even these efforts could not restore peace and order in Switzerland, and numerous settlements were abandoned as their inhabitants fled to more defensible places or to the South. Urban culture faded away as the cities of Nyon and Augusta Raurica were permanently abandoned during the 4th century, the stones of their ruins serving to fortifyGeneva andBasel.[35] Aventicum never recovered from its pillages:Ammianus Marcellinus noted in around 360 that "the city was once very illustrious, as its half-ruined buildings attest."[33]
The Roman era of Switzerland is traditionally held to have ended in 401 AD, whenStilicho withdrew all troops from the Rhine and the Danube.[36] However, it has been argued that the withdrawal was only temporary and partial, and that Roman control of these rivers was reestablished in 411–413 with the assistance of tribes moving south from Germania.[37]
In any case, the fifth century saw the apparently non-violent takeover of western Switzerland by theBurgundians (placed there byFlavius Aetius in 443 as a shield against the invadingHuns) and of Northern and Central Switzerland by theAlamanni,[36] a move not opposed by either absent or weakened Roman forces. These settlements established the most important cultural and linguistic division in modern Switzerland: the Burgundian areas eventually became the French-speakingRomandie, while the people in the larger Eastern half – calledla suisse alémanique in French – still speak variants ofAlemannic German.
Raetia maintained its Roman traditions longer than the rest of Switzerland, but most of it was eventually assimilated as well, leaving only a small territory where aVulgar Latin dialect,Romansh, is spoken to this day. The assassination of Aetius in 454 and the subsequent retreat of Roman forces to the south of the Alps marked the definitive end of Roman power in Switzerland, and the beginning of the transition to theMiddle Ages.
Media related toAncient Roman art in Switzerland at Wikimedia Commons
