The swastika is a symbol with many styles and meanings and can be found in many cultures.Theappropriation of the swastika by theNazi Party is the most recognisable modern use of the symbol in the Western world.
Theswastika (卐 or卍) is a symbol used in variousEurasian religions and cultures, as well as a fewAfrican andAmerican cultures. In the Western world, it is widely recognized as a symbol of the GermanNazi Party whoappropriated it for their party insignia starting in the early 20th century. The appropriation continues with its use byneo-Nazis around the world.[1][2][3][4] The swastika was and continues to be used as a symbol of divinity and spirituality inIndian religions, includingHinduism,Buddhism, andJainism.[1][5][6][7][8] It generally takes the form of across,[A] the arms of which are of equal length and perpendicular to the adjacent arms, each bent midway at a right angle.[10][11]
With well-being (swasti) we would follow along our path, like the Sun and the Moon. May we meet up with one who gives in return, who does not smite (harm), with one who knows.
The wordswastika is derived from the Sanskrit rootswasti, which is composed ofsu 'good, well' andasti 'is; it is; there is'.[31] The wordswasti occurs frequently in theVedas as well as in classical literature, meaning 'health, luck, success, prosperity', and it was commonly used as a greeting.[32][33] The finalka is a common suffix that could have multiple meanings.[34]
According toMonier-Williams, a majority of scholars consider the swastika to originally be asolar symbol.[32] The sign implies well-being, something fortunate, lucky, or auspicious.[32][35] It is alternatively spelled in contemporary texts assvastika,[36] and other spellings were occasionally used in the 19th and early 20th century, such assuastika.[37] It was derived from theSanskrit term (Devanagariस्वस्तिक), which transliterates tosvastika under the commonly usedIAST transliteration system, but is pronounced closer toswastika when letters are used with their English values.
The earliest known use of the word swastika is inPāṇini'sAṣṭādhyāyī, which uses it to explain one of the Sanskrit grammar rules, in the context of a type of identifying mark on a cow's ear.[31] Most scholarship suggests that Pāṇini lived in or before the 4th century BCE,[38][39] possibly in 6th or 5th century BCE.[40][41]
An important early use of the wordswastika in a European text was in 1871 with the publications ofHeinrich Schliemann, who discovered more than 1,800 ancient samples of swastika symbols and variants thereof while digging theHisarlik mound near the Aegean Sea coast for the history of Troy. Schliemann linked his findings to the Sanskritswastika.[42][43][44]
By the 19th century, the termswastika was adopted into the English lexicon,[45] replacing the previousgammadion from Greekγαμμάδιον. In 1878, Irish scholarCharles Graves usedswastika as the common English name for the symbol, after defining it as equivalent to the French termcroix gammée – a cross with arms shaped like the Greek lettergamma (Γ).[46] Shortly thereafter, British antiquariansEdward Thomas andRobert Sewell separately published their studies about the symbol, usingswastika as the common English term.[47][48]
The concept of a "reversed" swastika was probably first made among European scholars byEugène Burnouf in 1852 and taken up bySchliemann inIlios (1880), based on a letter fromMax Müller that quotes Burnouf. The termsauwastika is used in the sense of 'backward swastika' byEugène Goblet d'Alviella (1894): "In India it [thegammadion] bears the name ofswastika, when its arms are bent towards the right, andsauwastika when they are turned in the other direction."[49]
Other names for the symbol include:
tetragammadion (Greek:τετραγαμμάδιον) orcross gammadion (Latin:crux gammata; French:croix gammée), as each arm resembles the Greek letter Γ (gamma)[10]
tetraskelion (Greek:τετρασκέλιον), literally meaning 'four-legged', especially when composed of four conjoined legs (comparetriskelion/triskele [Greek:τρισκέλιον])[50]
ugunskrusts (Latvian for 'fire cross, cross of fire"; other names – pērkonkrusts ('cross of thunder', 'thunder cross'), cross ofPerun or ofPerkūnas), cross of branches, cross ofLaima)
whirling logs (Navajo): can denote abundance, prosperity, healing, and luck[51]
In various European languages, it is known as thefylfot,gammadion,tetraskelion, orcross cramponnée (a term in Anglo-Normanheraldry); German:Hakenkreuz; French:croix gammée; Italian:croce uncinata;Latvian:ugunskrusts. InMongolian it is calledхас (khas) and mainly used in seals. In Chinese it is called 卍字 (wànzì), pronouncedmanji in Japanese,manja (만자) in Korean andvạn tự orchữ vạn inVietnamese. InBalti/Tibetan language it is calledyung drung.[citation needed]
All swastikas are bent crosses based on achiral symmetry, but they appear with differentgeometric details: as compact crosses with short legs, as crosses with large arms and as motifs in a pattern of unbroken lines. Chirality describes an absence ofreflective symmetry, with the existence of two versions that aremirror images of each other. The mirror-image forms are typically described as left-facing or left-hand (卍) and right-facing or right-hand (卐).
The compact swastika can be seen as a chiral irregularicosagon (20-sidedpolygon) with fourfold (90°)rotational symmetry. Such a swastika proportioned on a 5×5 square grid and with the broken portions of its legs shortened by one unit cantile the plane bytranslation alone. The main Nazi flag swastika used a 5×5 diagonal grid, but with the legs unshortened.[54]
The swastika is included in theUnicode character sets of two languages. In the Chinese block it is U+534D卍 (left-facing) and U+5350 for the swastika卐 (right-facing);[55] The latter has a mapping in the originalBig5 character set,[56] but the former does not (although it is in Big5+[57]). In Unicode 5.2, two swastika symbols and two swastikas were added to theTibetan block: swastikaU+0FD5࿕RIGHT-FACING SVASTI SIGN,U+0FD7࿗RIGHT-FACING SVASTI SIGN WITH DOTS, and swastikasU+0FD6࿖LEFT-FACING SVASTI SIGN,U+0FD8࿘LEFT-FACING SVASTI SIGN WITH DOTS.[58]
Approximate representation of theTiānmén天門 ('Gate of Heaven') orTiānshū天樞 ('Pivot of Heaven') as the processional north celestial pole, withα Ursae Minoris as thepole star, with the spinningChariot constellations in the four phases of time.Tiān, generally translated as 'heaven' inChinese theology, refers to the northerncelestial pole (北極Běijí), the pivot and the vault of the sky with its spinning constellations. The celestial pivot can be represented bywàn卍 ('myriad things').
According toRené Guénon, the swastika represents the north pole, and the rotational movement around a centre or immutable axis (axis mundi), and only secondly it represents theSun as a reflected function of the north pole. As such it is a symbol of life, of the vivifying role of the supreme principle of the universe, theabsolute God, in relation to the cosmic order. It represents the activity (the HellenicLogos, the HinduOm, the ChineseTaiyi, 'Great One') of the principle of the universe in the formation of the world.[61] According to Guénon, the swastika in its polar value has the same meaning of theyin and yang symbol of the Chinese tradition, and of other traditional symbols of the working of the universe, including the letters Γ (gamma) and G, symbolising theGreat Architect of the Universe ofMasonic thought.[62]
According to the scholar Reza Assasi, the swastika represents the northecliptic north pole centred inζ Draconis, with the constellationDraco as one of its beams. He argues that this symbol was later attested as the four-horse chariot ofMithra in ancient Iranian culture. They believed the cosmos was pulled by four heavenly horses who revolved around a fixed centre in a clockwise direction. He suggests that this notion later flourished in RomanMithraism, as the symbol appears in Mithraic iconography and astronomical representations.[63]
According to the Russian archaeologistGennady Zdanovich, who studied some of the oldest examples of the symbol inSintashta culture, the swastika symbolises the universe, representing the spinning constellations of thecelestial north pole centred inα Ursae Minoris, specifically theLittle andBig Dipper (or Chariots), or Ursa Minor and Ursa Major.[64] Likewise, according to René Guénon-the swastika is drawn by visualising the Big Dipper/Great Bear in the four phases of revolution around the pole star.[65]
In their 1985 bookComet,Carl Sagan andAnn Druyan argue that the appearance of a rotatingcomet with a four-pronged tail as early as 2,000 years BCE could explain why the swastika is found in the cultures of both theOld World and thepre-Columbian Americas. TheHan dynastyBook of Silk (2nd century BCE) depicts such a comet with a swastika-like symbol.[66]
Bob Kobres, in a 1992 paper, contends that the swastika-like comet on the Han-dynasty manuscript was labelled a "long tailed pheasant star" (dixing) because of its resemblance to a bird's foot or footprint.[67] Similar comparisons had been made by J.F. Hewitt in 1907,[68] as well as a 1908 article inGood Housekeeping.[69] Kobres goes on to suggest an association of mythological birds and comets also outside of China.[67]
InNative American culture, particularly among thePima people ofArizona, the swastika is a symbol of the four winds. AnthropologistFrank Hamilton Cushing noted that among the Pima the symbol of the four winds is made from a cross with the four curved arms (similar to a brokensun cross) and concludes "the right-angle swastika is primarily a representation of the circle of the four wind gods standing at the head of their trails, or directions."[70]
The earliest known swastikas are from 10,000 BCE – part of "an intricate meander pattern of joined-up swastikas" found on a latepaleolithic figurine of a bird, carved frommammoth ivory, found inMezine, Ukraine.[71] However, the age of 10,000 BCE is a conservative estimate, and the true age may be as old as 17,000 BCE.[72] It has been suggested that this swastika may be a stylised picture of astork in flight.[73] As the carving was found nearphallic objects, this may also support the idea that the pattern was a fertility symbol.[2]
In the mountains ofIran, there are swastikas or spinning wheels inscribed on stone walls, which are estimated to be more than 7,000 years old. One instance is in Khorashad,Birjand, on the holy wall Lakh Mazar.[74][75]
Mirror-image swastikas (clockwise and counter-clockwise) have been found on ceramic pottery in theDevetashka cave, Bulgaria, dated to 6,000 BCE.[76]
In Asia, swastika symbols first appear in the archaeological record around[77] 3000 BCE in the Indus Valley Civilisation.[78][79] It also appears in theBronze andIron Age cultures around theBlack Sea and theCaspian Sea. In all these cultures, swastika symbols do not appear to occupy any marked position or significance, appearing as just one form of a series of similar symbols of varying complexity. In theZoroastrian religion ofPersia, the swastika was a symbol of the revolving sun, infinity, or continuing creation.[80][81] It is one of the most common symbols onMesopotamian coins.[1]Some researchers put forth the hypothesis that the swastika moved westward from the Indian subcontinent to Finland,Scandinavia, theScottish Highlands and other parts of Europe.[82][better source needed] In England, neolithic or Bronze Age stone carvings of the symbol have been found onIlkley Moor, such as theSwastika Stone.
Swastikas are also seen in Egypt during the Coptic period. Textile number T.231-1923 held at the V&A Museum in London includes small swastikas in its design. This piece was found at Qau-el-Kebir, nearAsyut, and is dated between 300 and 600 CE.[85]
TheTierwirbel (the German for "animal whorl" or "whirl of animals"[86]) is a characteristic motif in Bronze Age Central Asia, theEurasian Steppe, and later also in Iron AgeScythian andEuropean (Baltic[87] andGermanic) culture, showing rotational symmetric arrangement of ananimal motif, often four birds' heads. Even wider diffusion of this "Asiatic" theme has been proposed to the Pacific and even North America (especiallyMoundville).[88]
TheSamarra bowl, from Iraq, circa 4,000 BCE, held at thePergamonmuseum, Berlin. The swastika in the centre of the design is a reconstruction.[89]
In Armenia the swastika is called the "arevakhach" and "kerkhach" (Armenian:կեռխաչ)[91][dubious –discuss] and is the ancient symbol of eternity and eternal light (i.e. God). Swastikas in Armenia were found on petroglyphs from the copper age, predating the Bronze Age. During the Bronze Age it was depicted oncauldrons, belts,medallions and other items.[92]
Swastikas can also be seen on early Medieval churches and fortresses, including the principal tower in Armenia's historical capital city ofAni.[91] The same symbol can be found onArmenian carpets, cross-stones (khachkar) and in medieval manuscripts, as well as on modern monuments as asymbol of eternity.[93]
Petroglyphs with swastikas were depicted on medievalVainakh tower architecture (see sketches by scholar Bruno Plaetschke from the 1920s).[96] Thus, a rectangular swastika was made in engraved form on the entrance of a residential tower in the settlementKhimoy,Chechnya.[96]
The petroglyph with swastikas,Gegham mountains, Armenia, circa 8,000 – 5,000 BCE[97]
Hilda Ellis Davidson hypothesised that the swastika symbol was associated withThor, possibly representing hisMjolnir – symbolic of thunder – and possibly being connected to the Bronze Age sun cross.[102] Davidson cites "many examples" of swastika symbols from Anglo-Saxon graves of the pagan period, with particular prominence on cremation urns from the cemeteries of East Anglia.[102] Some of the swastikas on the items, on display at the Cambridge Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, are depicted with such care and art that, according to Davidson, it must have possessed special significance as afunerary symbol.[102] Therunic inscription on the 8th-centurySæbø sword has been taken as evidence of the swastika as a symbol of Thor inNorse paganism.
According to painter Stanisław Jakubowski, the "little sun" (Polish:słoneczko) is anEarly Slavic pagan symbol of the Sun; he claimed it was engraved on wooden monuments built near the final resting places of fallen Slavs to represent eternal life. The symbol was first seen in his collection of Early Slavic symbols and architectural features, which he namedPrasłowiańskie motywy architektoniczne (Polish:Early Slavic Architectural Motifs). His work was published in 1923.[110]
According toBoris Kuftin, theRussians often used swastikas as a decorative element and as the basis of the ornament on traditional weaving products.[112] Many can be seen on a women's folk costume from theMeshchera Lowlands.[112]
According to some authors, Russian names popularly associated with the swastika includeveterok ("breeze"),[113]ognevtsi ("little flames"), "geese", "hares" (a towel with a swastika was called a towel with "hares"), or "little horses".[114] The similar word "koleso" ("wheel") was used for rosette-shaped amulets, such as ahexafoil-thunder wheel) in folklore, particularly in theRussian North.[115][116]
An object very much like a hammer or a double axe is depicted among the magical symbols on the drums ofSaminoaidi, used in their religious ceremonies before Christianity was established. The name of the Sami thunder god wasHoragalles, thought to derive from "Old Man Thor" (Þórr karl). Sometimes on the drums, a male figure with a hammer-like object in either hand is shown, and sometimes it is more like a cross with crooked ends, or a swastika.[102]
Ancient symbol theHands of God or "Hands of Svarog" (Polish:Ręce Swaroga)[117]
The icon has been of spiritual significance to Indian religions such as Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism.[8][1] The swastika is a sacred symbol in theBön religion, native toTibet.
Hinduism
Hindu swastikas
Hindu swastika
Sauwastika
Bengali swastika
The swastika is an important Hindu symbol.[1][8] The swastika symbol is commonly used before entrances or on doorways of homes or temples, to mark the starting page of financial statements[citation needed], andmandalas constructed for rituals such as weddings or welcoming a newborn.[1][118]
The swastika has a particular association withDiwali, being drawn inrangoli (coloured sand) or formed withdeepak lights on the floor outside Hindu houses and on wall hangings and other decorations.[119]
In the diverse traditions within Hinduism, both the clockwise and counterclockwise swastika are found, with different meanings. The clockwise or right hand icon is calledswastika, while the counterclockwise or left hand icon is calledsauwastika orsauvastika.[1] The clockwise swastika is a solar symbol (Surya), suggesting the motion of the Sun in India (the northern hemisphere), where it appears to enter from the east, then ascend to the south at midday, exiting to the west.[1] The counterclockwisesauwastika is less used; it connotes the night, and in tantric traditions it is an icon for the goddessKali, the terrifying form ofDeviDurga.[1] The symbol also represents activity, karma, motion, wheel, and in some contexts the lotus.[5][6] According to Norman McClelland its symbolism for motion and the Sun may be from shared prehistoric cultural roots.[120]
Sauwastika with 24 beadsjapamala, primarily used in Malaysian Buddhism
InBuddhism, the swastika is considered to symbolise the auspicious footprints of the Buddha.[1][14] The left-facing sauwastika is often imprinted on the chest, feet or palms ofBuddha images. It is an aniconic symbol for the Buddha in many parts of Asia and homologous with thedharma wheel.[6] The shape symbolises eternal cycling, a theme found in thesamsara doctrine of Buddhism.[6]
The swastika symbol is common inesoteric tantric traditions of Buddhism, along with Hinduism, where it is found withchakra theories and other meditative aids.[118] The clockwise symbol is more common, and contrasts with the counterclockwise version common in the TibetanBon tradition and locally calledyungdrung.[121]
In East Asia, the swastika is prevalent in Buddhist monasteries and communities. It is commonly found in Buddhist temples, religious artifacts, texts related to Buddhism and schools founded by Buddhist religious groups. It also appears as a design or motif (singularly or woven into a pattern) on textiles, architecture and various decorative objects as a symbol of luck and good fortune. The icon is also found as a sacred symbol in the Bon tradition, but in the left-facing orientation.[52][122]
Jainism
Jain symbol (Prateek) containing a swastikaThe officialJain flag with swastika; its four hands representing the four possible reincarnations ofsoul including heaven, hell, human, and plant or animal.[123]
InJainism, it is a symbol of the seventhtīrthaṅkara,Suparśvanātha.[1] In theŚvētāmbara tradition, it is also one of theaṣṭamaṅgala or eight auspicious symbols. AllJain temples and holy books must contain the swastika and ceremonies typically begin and end with creating a swastika mark several times with rice around the altar. Jains use rice to make a swastika in front of statues and then put an offering on it, usually a ripe or dried fruit, a sweet (Hindi:मिठाईmiṭhāī), or a coin or currency note. The four arms of the swastika symbolise the four places where a soul could be reborn insamsara, the cycle of birth and death – svarga "heaven",naraka "hell",manushya "humanity" ortiryancha "as flora or fauna" – before the soul attainsmoksha "salvation" as asiddha, having ended the cycle of birth and death and becomeomniscient.[7]
Prevalence in southern Asia
In Bhutan, India, Nepal and Sri Lanka, the swastika is common. Temples, businesses and other organisations, such as the Buddhist libraries,Ahmedabad Stock Exchange and the Nepal Chamber of Commerce,[124] use the swastika in reliefs or logos.[122] Swastikas are ubiquitous in Indian and Nepalese communities, located on shops, buildings, transport vehicles, and clothing. The swastika remains prominent in Hindu ceremonies such as weddings. The left facingsauwastika symbol is found in tantric rituals.[1]
Musaeus College in Colombo, Sri Lanka, a Buddhist girls' school, has a left facing swastika in their school logo.
In India,Swastik andSwastika, with their spelling variants, are first names for males and females respectively, for instance withSwastika Mukherjee. TheEmblem of Bihar contains two swastikas.
In Bhutan, swastika motifs are found in architecture, fabrics and religious ceremonies.
Among the predominantly Hindu population ofBali, in Indonesia, swastikas are common in temples, homes and public spaces. Similarly, the swastika is a common icon associated with Buddha's footprints in Theravada Buddhist communities of Myanmar, Thailand and Cambodia.[122]
TheTantra-based new religious movementAnanda Marga (Devanagari: आनन्द मार्ग, meaning 'Path of Bliss') uses a motif similar to the Raëlians, but in their case the apparent star of David is defined as intersecting triangles with no specific reference to Jewish culture.
One of common carving patterns ofTorajan people in Indonesia.
The swastika is an auspicious symbol in China where it was introduced from India withBuddhism.[125] In 693, during theTang dynasty, it was declared as "the source of all good fortune" and was calledwan byWu Zetian becoming a Chinese word.[125] The Chinese character forwan (pinyin:wàn) is similar to a swastika in shape and has two different variations:《卐》and 《卍》. As the Chinese characterwan (卐 or卍) is homonym for the Chinese word of "ten thousand" (万) and "infinity", as such the Chinese character is itself a symbol of immortality[126] and infinity.[127]: 175 It was also a representation oflongevity.[127]: 175
The Chinese characterwan could be used as a stand-alone《卐》or《卍》or as be used as pairs《卐卍》in Chinese visual arts, decorative arts, and clothing due to its auspicious connotation.[127]: 175
Adding the characterwan (卐 or卍) to other auspicious Chinese symbols or patterns can multiply that wish by 10,000 times.[125][127]: 175 It can be combined with other Chinese characters, such as the Chinese charactershou《壽》for longevity where it is sometimes even integrated into the Chinese charactershou to augment the meaning of longevity.[127]: 175
The paired swastika symbols (卐 and卍) are included, at least since theLiao Dynasty (907–1125 CE), as part of theChinese writing system and arevariant characters for 《萬》 or 《万》 (wàn in Mandarin, 《만》(man) in Korean, Cantonese, and Japanese,vạn in Vietnamese) meaning "myriad".[128]
The characterwan can also be stylized in the form of thexiangyun, Chinese auspicious clouds.
When the Chinese writing system was introduced to Japan in the 8th century, the swastika was adopted into the Japanese language and culture. It is commonly referred as themanji (lit. "10,000-character"). Since the Middle Ages, it has been used as amon by various Japanese families such asTsugaru clan,Hachisuka clan or around 60 clans that belong toTokugawa clan.[129]The city ofHirosaki inAomori Prefecture designates this symbol as its official flag, which stemmed from its use in the emblem of theTsugaru clan, the lords ofHirosaki Domain during theEdo period.[citation needed]
In Japan, the swastika is also used as amap symbol and is designated by the Survey Act and related Japanese governmental rules to denote aBuddhist temple.[130] Japan has considered changing this due to occasional controversy and misunderstanding by foreigners.[131] The symbol is sometimes censored in international versions of Japanese works, such as anime.[132] Censorship of this symbol in Japan and in Japanese media abroad has been subject to occasional controversy related to freedom of speech, with critics of the censorship arguing it does not respect history nor freedom of speech.[131][132]
Sayagata pattern
InChinese andJapanese art, swastikas are often found as part of a repeating pattern. One common pattern, calledsayagata in Japanese, comprises left- and right-facing swastikas joined by lines.[133] As the negative space between the lines has a distinctive shape, the sayagata pattern is sometimes called thekey fret motif in English.[citation needed]
ManyChinese religions make use of swastika symbols, includingGuiyidao andShanrendao. TheRed Swastika Society, formed in China in 1922 as the philanthropic branch of Guiyidao, became the largest supplier of emergency relief in China duringWorld War II, in the same manner as theRed Cross in the rest of the world. The Red Swastika Society abandoned mainland China in 1954, settling first in Hong Kong then in Taiwan. They continue to use the red swastika as their symbol.[134]
TheFalun Gongqigong movement, founded in China in the early 1990s, uses a symbol that features a large swastika surrounded by four smaller (and rounded) ones, interspersed withyin-and-yang symbols.[135]
Chinese characterwan integrated into one of the stylistic versions of the Chinese charactershou
Paired character wan on adragon robe, Qing dynasty
Ancient Greek architectural, clothing and coin designs are replete with single or interlinking swastika motifs. There are also gold platefibulae from the 8th century BCE decorated with an engraved swastika.[136] Related symbols in classical Western architecture include the cross, the three-legged triskele ortriskelion and the roundedlauburu. The swastika symbol is also known in these contexts by a number of names, especiallygammadion,[137] or rather the tetra-gammadion. The namegammadion comes from its being seen as being made up of four Greekgamma (Γ) letters. Ancient Greek architectural designs are replete with the interlinking symbol.
InGreco-Roman art and architecture, and inRomanesque andGothic art in the West, isolated swastikas are relatively rare, and the swastika is more commonly found as a repeated element in a border or tessellation. Swastikas often represented perpetual motion, reflecting the design of a rotating windmill or watermill. A meander of connected swastikas makes up the large band that surrounds theAugustanAra Pacis.
A design of interlocking swastikas is one of severaltessellations on the floor of thecathedral ofAmiens, France.[138] A border of linked swastikas was a common Roman architectural motif,[139] and can be seen in more recent buildings as a neoclassical element. A swastika border is one form ofmeander, and the individual swastikas in such a border are sometimes calledGreek keys. There have also been swastikas found on the floors ofPompeii.[140]
Swastikas were widespread among theIllyrians, symbolising the Sun and the fire. The Sun cult was the main Illyrian cult; a swastika in clockwise motion is interpreted in particular as a representation of the movement of the Sun.[98][141][142]
The swastika has been preserved by theAlbanians since Illyrian times as apagan symbol commonly found in a variety of contexts of Albanian folk art, includingtraditional tattooing, grave art, jewellery, clothes, and house carvings. The swastika (Albanian:kryqi grepç orkryqi i thyer, "hooked cross") and other crosses in Albanian tradition represent the Sun (Dielli) and the fire (zjarri, evidently called with the theonymEnji). InAlbanian paganism fire is regarded as the offspring of the Sun and fire calendar rituals are practiced in order to give strength to the Sun and toward off evil.[143][144]
Medieval and early modern Europe
Middle Ages
In Christianity, the swastika is used as a hooked version of theChristian Cross, the symbol of Christ's victory over death. Some Christian churches built in theRomanesque andGothic eras are decorated with swastikas, carrying over earlier Roman designs. Swastikas are prominently displayed in amosaic in theSaint Sophia Cathedral, Kyiv, dating from the 12th century. They also appear as a repeating ornamental motif on the so-calledSarcophagus of Stilicho in theBasilica of Sant'Ambrogio inMilan.[145]
A ceiling painted in 1910 in theGrenoble Archaeological Museum (the former church of St Laurent) has many swastikas. A proposed direct link between it and a swastika floor mosaic in theAmiens Cathedral, which was built on top of a pagan site atAmiens, France in the 13th century, is considered[who?] unlikely. Thestole worn by a priest in the 1445painting of the Seven Sacraments byRogier van der Weyden presents the swastika form simply as one way of depicting the cross.
Swastikas also appear in art and architecture during theRenaissance andBaroque era. The frescoThe School of Athens shows an ornament made out of swastikas, and the symbol can also be found on the facade of theSanta Maria della Salute, a Roman Catholic church and minor basilica located atPunta della Dogana in theDorsodurosestiere of the city ofVenice.
In thePolish First Republic swastika symbols were also popular with the nobility. Several noble houses, e.g. Boreyko, Borzym, and Radziechowski from Ruthenia, also had swastikas as theircoat of arms. The family reached its greatness in the 14th and 15th centuries and its crest can be seen in many heraldry books produced at that time.
The swastika was also a heraldic symbol, for example on theBoreyko coat of arms, used by noblemen in Poland and Ukraine. In the 19th century a swastika was one of the Russian Empire's symbols and was used on coinage as a backdrop to theRussian eagle.[146]
The Victorian-era reproduction of theSwastika Stone onIlkley Moor, which sits near the original to aid visitors in interpreting the carving
Rediscovery by Heinrich Schliemann
AtTroy near theDardanelles,Heinrich Schliemann's 1871–1875archaeological excavations discovered objects decorated with swastikas.[147]: 101–105 [148][149]: 31 [150]: 31 Hearing of this, the director of theFrench School at Athens,Émile-Louis Burnouf, wrote to Schliemann in 1872, stating "the Swastika should be regarded as a sign of theAryan race". Burnouf told Schliemann that "It should also be noted that the Jews have completely rejected it".[151]: 89 Accordingly, Schliemann believed the Trojans to have been Aryans: "The primitive Trojans, therefore, belonged to the Aryan race, which is further sufficiently proved by the symbols on the round terra-cottas".[147]: 157 [151]: 90 Schliemann accepted Burnouf's interpretation.[151]: 89
This winter, I have read in Athens many excellent works of celebrated scholars on Indian antiquities, especiallyAdalbert Kuhn,Die Herakunft des Feuers;Max Müller'sEssays;Émile Burnouf,La Science des Religions andEssai sur le Vêda; as well as several works byEugène Burnouf; and I now perceive that these crosses upon the Trojan terra-cottas are of the highest importance to archæology.
— Heinrich Schliemann,Troy and Its Remains, 1875[147]: 101
Schliemann believed that use of swastikas spread widely across Eurasia.[152]
… I am now able to prove that … the 卍, which I find in Émile Burnouf's Sanscrit lexicon, under the name of "suastika," and with the meaningεὖ ἐστι, or as the sign of good wishes, were already regarded, thousands of years before Christ, as religious symbols of the very greatest importance among the early progenitors of the Aryan races inBactria and in the villages of theOxus, at a time whenGermans, Indians,Pelasgians,Celts,Persians,Slavonians andIranians still formed one nation and spoke one language.
— Heinrich Schliemann,Troy and Its Remains, 1875[147]: 101–102
Schliemann established a link between the swastika and Germany. He connected objects he excavated at Troy to objects bearing swastikas found in Germany nearKönigswalde on theOder.[148][149]: 31 [150]: 31 [151]: 90
For I recognise at the first glance the "suastika" upon one of those three pot bottoms, which were discovered on Bishop's Island near Königswalde on the right bank of the Oder, and have given rise to very many learned discussions, while no one recognised the mark as that exceedingly significant religious symbol of our remote ancestors.
— Heinrich Schliemann,Troy and Its Remains, 1875[147]: 102
Sarah Boxer, in an article in 2000 inThe New York Times, described this as a "fateful link".[148] According toSteven Heller, "Schliemann presumed that the swastika was a religious symbol of his German ancestors which linked ancientTeutons,Homeric Greeks andVedic India".[149]: 31 According to Bernard Mees, "Of all of the pre-runic symbols, the swastika has always been the most popular among scholars" and "The origin of swastika studies must be traced to the excitement generated by the archaeological finds of Heinrich Schliemann at Troy".[153]
After his excavations at Troy, Schliemann began digging atMycenae. According to Cathy Gere, "Having burdened the swastika symbol with such cultural, religious and racial significance inTroy and Its Remains, it was incumbent on Schliemann to find the symbol repeated at Mycenae, but its occurrence turned out to be disappointingly infrequent".[151]: 91 Gere writes that "He did his best with what he had":[151]: 91
The cross with the marks of four nails may often be seen; as well as the 卍, which is usually also represented with four points indicating the four nails, thus ࿘. These signs cannot but represent thesuastika, formed by two pieces of wood, which were laid across and fixed with four nails, and in the joint of which the holy fire was produced by friction by a third piece of wood. But both the cross and the 卍 occur for the most part only on the vases with geometrical patterns.
Gere points out that although Schliemann wrote that the motif "may often be seen", his 1878 bookMycenæ did not have illustrations of any examples.[151]: 91 Schliemann described "a small and thick terra-cotta disk" on which "are engraved a number of 卍's, the sign which occurs so frequently in the ruins of Troy", but as Gere notes, he did not publish an illustration.[154]: 77 [151]: 91
Goldrepoussé roundel from grave III ofGrave Circle A, whose central motif Schliemann thought "derived" from the swastika.[154]: 165–166
The curious ornamentation in the centre, which so often recurs here, seems to me to be derived from the ࿘, the more so as the points which are thought to be the marks of the nails, are seldom missing; the artist has only added two more arms and curved all of them.
According to Gere, this motif is "completely dissimilar" to the swastika, and that Schliemann was "straining desperately after the same connection".[151]: 91 Nevertheless, theMycenaean Greeks and theTrojan people both came to be identified as representatives of the Aryan race: "Despite the difficulties with linking the symbolism of Troy and Mycenae, the common Aryan roots of the two peoples became something of a truism".[151]: 91
The house Schliemann had had built inPanepistimiou Street in Athens by 1880,Iliou Melathron, is decorated with swastika symbols and motifs in numerous places, including the ironwork railing and gates, the window bars, the ceiling fresco of the entrance hall, and the entire floor of one room.[151]: 117–123
In 1897,Max Ferdinand Sebaldt von Werth publishedWanidis andSexualreligion, which according toNicholas Goodrick-Clarke inThe Occult Roots of Nazism, "described the sexual-religion of the Aryans, a sacred practice ofeugenics designed to maintain the purity of the race".[155]: 51 Both works were "illustrated with the magical curved-armed armed swastika".[155]: 51 Influenced by Sebaldt, List published inDer Scherer – erstes illustriertes Tiroler Witzblatt [de] an article ("Germanischer Lichtdienst") which claimed the swastika was a sacred symbol of the Aryans representing the "fire-whisk" (Feuerquirl) with which thecreator deityMundelföri had begun the world.[155]: 52 In September 1903, List published an article discussing the creation of the universe, the "old-Aryan sexual religion",reincarnation,karma, "Wotanism", and "Armanism" from histheosophical viewpoint, which was illustrated bytriskelions and various swastikas in the Viennese occult journalDie Gnosis.[155]: 41, 52 According to Goodrick-Clarke, "This article marked the first stage in List's articulation of a Germanic occult religion, the principal concern of which was racial purity".[155]: 52
A series of anti-clockwise triskelions and swastikas and inverted triangles symbolized stages of cosmic evolution in the downsweep of the cycle (i.e. the evolution from unity to multiplicity), while their clockwise and upright counterparts connoted the return path to the godhead. The skewed super-imposition of the of these 'falling' and 'rising' sigils created complex sigils like thehexagram and theMaltese Cross. List asserted that these latter symbols were utterly sacred, because they embraced the two antithetical forces of all creation: as the representative symbols of the zenith of multiplicity at the outermost limit of the cycle, they denoted the Ario-German god-man, the highest form of life ever to evolve in the universe.[155]: 54
The swastika symbol became a popular symbol in the Western world in the early 20th century, and was often used for ornamentation. It symbolised many things to the Europeans, with the most common symbolism being of good luck and auspiciousness.[23]
The Benedictine choir school atLambach Abbey, Upper Austria, which Hitler attended for several months as a boy, had a swastika chiseled into the monastery portal and also the wall above the spring grotto in the courtyard by 1868. Their origin was the personalcoat of arms ofTheoderich Hagn, abbot of the monastery in Lambach, which bore a golden swastika with slanted points on a blue field.[156]
The British author and poetRudyard Kipling used the symbol on the cover art of a number of his works, includingThe Five Nations, 1903, which has it twinned with an elephant. Once Adolf Hitler and the Nazis came to power, Kipling ordered that swastikas should no longer adorn his books.[citation needed] In 1927, a red swastikadefaced by a Union Jack was proposed as a flag for theUnion of South Africa.[157]
The logo ofH/f. Eimskipafjelag Íslands[158] was a swastika, called "Thor's hammer", from its founding in 1914 until theSecond World War when it was discontinued and changed to read only the letters Eimskip.
The swastika was also used by the women's paramilitary organisationLotta Svärd, which was banned in 1944 in accordance with theMoscow Armistice between Finland and thealliedSoviet Union and Britain.
Also, the insignias of theCross of Liberty, designed by Gallen-Kallela in 1918, have swastikas. The 3rd class Cross of Liberty is depicted in the upper left corner of the standard of the President of Finland, who is the grand master of the order, too.[159]
Latvian Air Force roundel until 1940
Latvia adopted the swastika, for itsAir Force in 1918/1919 and continued its use until theSoviet occupation in 1940.[160][161] The cross itself was maroon on a white background, mirroring the colours of the Latvian flag. Earlier versions pointed counter-clockwise, while later versions pointed clock-wise and eliminated the white background.[162][163] Various otherLatvian Army units and the Latvian War College[164] (the predecessor of theNational Defence Academy) also had adopted the symbol in their battle flags and insignia during theLatvian War of Independence.[165] A stylised fire cross is the base of theOrder of Lāčplēsis, the highest military decoration of Latvia for participants of the War of Independence.[166] ThePērkonkrusts, an ultra-nationalist political organisation active in the 1930s, also used the fire cross as one of its symbols.
The swastika symbol (Lithuanian:sūkurėlis) is a traditional Baltic ornament,[108][167] found on relics dating from at least the 13th century.[168] Thesūkurėlis for Lithuanians represents the history and memory of their Lithuanian ancestors as well as theBaltic people at large.[168] There are monuments in Lithuania such as the Freedom Monument inRokiškis where swastikas can be found.[168]
The left-handed swastika was a favourite sign of the last Russian EmpressAlexandra Feodorovna. She wore a talisman in the form of a swastika, put it everywhere for happiness, including on her suicide letters fromTobolsk,[170] later drew with a pencil on the wall and in the window opening of the room in theIpatiev House, which served as the place of the last imprisonment of the royal family and on the wallpaper above the bed.[171]
TheRussian Provisional Government of 1917 printed a number of new bank notes with right-facing, diagonally rotated swastikas in their centres.[172] The banknote design was initially intended for the Mongolian national bank but was re-purposed forRussian rubles after the February revolution. Swastikas were depicted and on some Soviet credit cards (sovznaks) printed with clichés that were in circulation in 1918–1922.[173]
Besides its use as a religious symbol inHinduism,Buddhism andJainism, which can be traced back to pre-modern traditions, the swastika was also incorporated into a large number ofnew religious movements which were established in the West in the modern period.
In the 1880s, the U.S.-originedTheosophical Society adopted a swastika as part of its seal, along with anOm, a hexagram orstar of David, anAnkh, and anOuroboros. Unlike the much more recentRaëlian movement, the Theosophical Society symbol has been free from controversy, and the seal is still used. The current seal also includes the text "There is no religion higher than truth."[176]
TheRaëlian Movement, whose adherents believe extraterrestrials created all life on earth, use a symbol that is often the source of considerable controversy: an interlacedstar of David and a swastika. The Raëlians say the Star of David represents infinity in space whereas the swastika represents infinity in time – no beginning and no end in time, and everything being cyclic.[177] In 1991, the symbol was changed to remove the swastika, out of respect to the victims ofthe Holocaust, but as of 2007 it has been restored to its original form.[178]
The swastika is a holy symbol inneopaganGermanic Heathenry, along with thehammer of Thor andrunes. This tradition – which is found in Scandinavia, Germany, and elsewhere – considers the swastika to be derived from a Norse symbol for the sun. Their use of the symbol has led people to accuse them of being a neo-Nazi group.[179][180][181]
Before the Nazis, the swastika was already in use as a symbol of Germanvölkisch nationalist movements (Völkische Bewegung).Inpost-World War I Germany, the newly establishedNazi Party formally adopted the swastika in 1920.[23][182] The Nazi Party emblem was a black swastika rotated 45 degrees on a white circle on a red background. This insignia was used on the party's flag, badge, and armband.Hitler also designed his personal standard using a black swastika sitting flat on one arm, not rotated.[183]
The flag of theNazi Party (National Socialist German Workers' Party, NSDAP)
The national flag ofGermany (1935–1945), which differs from the NSDAP flag in that the white circle with the swastika is off-center
In his 1925 workMein Kampf, Adolf Hitler writes: "I myself, meanwhile, after innumerable attempts, had laid down a final form; a flag with a red background, a white disk, and a black hooked cross in the middle. After long trials I also found a definite proportion between the size of the flag and the size of the white disk, as well as the shape and thickness of the hooked cross."
When Hitler created a flag for the Nazi Party, he sought to incorporate both the swastika and "those revered colours expressive of our homage to the glorious past and which once brought so much honour to the German nation". (Red, white, and black were the colours of theflag of the old German Empire.) He also stated: "As National Socialists, we see our program in our flag. In red, we see the social idea of the movement; in white, the nationalistic idea; in the hooked cross, the mission of the struggle for the victory of theAryan man, and, by the same token, the victory of the idea of creative work."[184]
The swastika was also understood as "the symbol of the creating, effecting life" (das Symbol des schaffenden, wirkenden Lebens) and as "race emblem of Germanism" (Rasseabzeichen des Germanentums).[185]
The concepts ofracial hygiene andscientific racism were central to Nazism.[186][187] High-ranking Nazi theoristAlfred Rosenberg noted that theIndo-Aryan peoples were both a model to be imitated and a warning of the dangers of the spiritual and racial "confusion" that, he believed, arose from the proximity of races. The Nazis co-opted the swastika as a symbol of the Aryan master race.
On 14 March 1933, shortly after Hitler's appointment as Chancellor of Germany, the NSDAP flag was hoisted alongside Germany's national colours. As part of theNuremberg Laws, the NSDAP flag – with the swastika slightly offset from centre – was adopted as the sole national flag of Germany on 15 September 1935.[188]
Heinrich Pudor'svölkischTreu Deutsch ('True German') 1918 with a swastika. From the collections of Leipzig City Museum.
German World War I helmet with swastika used by a member of theMarinebrigade Ehrhardt, a right-wing paramilitary free corps, participating in theKapp Putsch 1920
During World War II it was also common for Allied pilots to use small swastikas to mark air-to-air victories on the sides of their aircraft, and at least one British fighter pilot inscribed a swastika in his logbook for each German plane he shot down.[189]
Americas
A digital illustration ofHorned Serpent by the artist Herb Roe. Based on an engraved shell cup in theCraig B style (designatedEngraved shell cup number 229[190]) fromSpiro, Oklahoma.
The swastika has been used in the art and iconography of multiple indigenous peoples of North America, including the Hopi, Navajo, and Tlingit.[191] Swastikas were founds on pottery from the Mississippi valley and on copper objects in theHopewell Mounds inRoss County, Ohio, and on objects associated with theSoutheastern Ceremonial Complex (S.E.C.C.).[192][193] To theHopi it represents the wandering Hopi clan.[citation needed] TheNavajo symbol, calledtsin náálwołí ("whirling log"), represents humanity and life, and is used in healing rituals.[194][195]A brightly colouredFirst Nations saddle featuring swastika designs is on display at theRoyal Saskatchewan Museum in Canada.[196]
Before the 1930s, the symbol for the45th Infantry Division of the United States Army was a red diamond with a yellow swastika, a tribute to the large Native American population in the southwestern United States. It was later replaced with athunderbird symbol.
In the 20th century, traders encouraged Native American artists to use the symbol in their crafts, and it was used by the US Army 45th Infantry Division, an all-Native American division.[197][198][199] The symbol lost popularity in the 1930s due to its associations with Nazi Germany. In 1940, partially due to government encouragement, community leaders from several different Native American tribes made a statement promising to no longer use the symbol.[200][194][201][199] However, the symbol has continued to be used by Native American groups, both in reference to the original symbol and as a memorial to the 45th Division, despite external objections to its use.[4][199][201][202][203][204] The symbol was used on state road signs inArizona from the 1920s until the 1940s.[205]
From 1909 to 1916, theK-R-I-T automobile, manufactured in Detroit, Michigan, used a right-facing swastika as their trademark.
Flag of the Guna Yala people (since 1925) bears their ancient symbolNaa Ukuryaa
Theflag of the Guna people (also "Kuna Yala" or "Guna Yala") of Panama. This flag, adopted in 1925, has a swastika symbol that they callNaa Ukuryaa. According to one explanation, this ancestral symbol symbolises the octopus that created the world, its tentacles pointing to the four cardinal points.[206]In 1942, a ring was added to the centre of the flag to differentiate it from the symbol of theNazi Party (this version subsequently fell into disuse).[207]
The swastika in North America
Chief William Neptune of thePassamaquoddy, wearing a headdress and outfit adorned with swastikas
In the early 1990s, the former dissident and one of the founders of Russian neo-paganismAlexey Dobrovolsky first gave the name "kolovrat" (Russian:коловрат, literally 'spinning wheel') to a four-beam swastika, identical to the Nazi symbol, and later transferred this name to an eight-beam rectangular swastika.[210] According to the historian and religious scholar Roman Shizhensky, Dobrovolsky took the idea of the swastika from the work "The Chronicle ofOera Linda"[211] by the Nazi ideologistHerman Wirth, the first head of theAhnenerbe.[212]Dobrovolsky introduced the eight-beam "kolovrat" as a symbol of "resurgent paganism."[213] He considered this version of the Kolovrat a pagan sign of the sun and, in 1996, declared it a symbol of the uncompromising "national liberation struggle" against the "Zhyd yoke".[214] According to Dobrovolsky, the meaning of the "kolovrat" completely coincides with the meaning of the Nazi swastika.[215]Thekolovrat is the most commonly used religious symbol within neopaganSlavic Native Faith (a.k.a. Rodnovery).[216][217]
In 2005, authorities in Tajikistan called for the widespread adoption of the swastika as a nationalsymbol. PresidentEmomali Rahmonov declared the swastika anAryan symbol, and 2006 "the year of Aryan culture", which would be a time to "study and popularise Aryan contributions to the history of the world civilisation, raise a new generation (of Tajiks) with the spirit of national self-determination, and develop deeper ties with other ethnicities and cultures".[218]
Because of its use by Nazi Germany, the swastika since the 1930s has been largely associated with Nazism. In the aftermath of World War II, it has been considered a symbol of hate in the West,[219] and of white supremacy in many Western countries.[220]
As a result, all use of it, or its use as a Nazi or hate symbol, is prohibited in some countries, including Germany. In some countries, such as the United States (in the 2003 caseVirginia v. Black), the highest courts have ruled that the local governments can prohibit the use of swastika along with other symbols such as cross burning, if the intent of the use is to intimidate others.[24]
The German and Austrian postwarcriminal code makes the public showing of the swastika, thesig rune, theCeltic cross (specificallythe variations used by white power activists), thewolfsangel, theodal rune and theTotenkopf skull illegal, except for certain enumerated exemptions. It is also censored from the reprints of 1930s railway timetables published by theReichsbahn. The swastikas on Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain temples are exempt, as religious symbols cannot be banned in Germany.[221]
A controversy was stirred by the decision of several police departments to begin inquiries against anti-fascists.[222] In late 2005 police raided the offices of thepunk rock label and mail order store "Nix Gut Records" and confiscated merchandise depicting crossed-out swastikas and fists smashing swastikas. In 2006 theStade police department started an inquiry against anti-fascist youths using a placard depicting a person dumping a swastika into a trashcan. The placard was displayed in opposition to the campaign of right-wing nationalist parties for local elections.[223]
On Friday, 17 March 2006, a member of theBundestag,Claudia Roth reported herself to the German police for displaying a crossed-out swastika in multiple demonstrations againstneo-Nazis, and subsequently got the Bundestag to suspend her immunity from prosecution. She intended to show the absurdity of charging anti-fascists with using fascist symbols: "We don't need prosecution of non-violent young people engaging against right-wing extremism." On 15 March 2007, theFederal Court of Justice of Germany (Bundesgerichtshof) held that the crossed-out symbols were "clearly directed against a revival of national-socialist endeavours", thereby settling the dispute for the future.[224][225][226]
On 9 August 2018, Germany lifted the ban on the usage of swastikas and other Nazi symbols in video games. "Through the change in the interpretation of the law, games that critically look at current affairs can for the first time be given a USK age rating," USK managing director Elisabeth Secker told CTV. "This has long been the case for films and with regards to the freedom of the arts, this is now rightly also the case with computer and videogames."[227][228]
Legislation in other European countries
Until 2013 in Hungary, it was a criminal misdemeanour to publicly display "totalitarian symbols", including the swastika, theSS insignia, and theArrow Cross, punishable by custodial arrest.[229][230] Display for academic, educational, artistic or journalistic reasons was allowed at the time. Thecommunist symbols ofhammer and sickle and thered star were also regarded as totalitarian symbols and had the same restriction by Hungarian criminal law until 2013.[229]
In Latvia, public display of Nazi and Soviet symbols, including the Nazi swastika, is prohibited in public events since 2013.[231][232] However, in a court case from 2007 a regional court in Riga held that the swastika can be used as an ethnographic symbol, in which case the ban does not apply.[233]
In Lithuania, public display of Nazi and Soviet symbols, including the Nazi swastika, is an administrative offence, punishable by a fine from 150 to 300euros. According to judicial practice, display of a non-Nazi swastika is legal.[234]
In Poland, public display of Nazi symbols, including theNazi swastika, is a criminal offence punishable by up to eight years of imprisonment. The use of the swastika as a religious symbol is legal.[235]
InGeneva, Switzerland, a new constitution article banning the use of hate symbols, emblems, and other hateful images was passed in June 2024, which included banning the use of the swastika.[236]
TheEuropean Union's Executive Commission proposed a European Union-wide anti-racism law in 2001, but European Union states failed to agree on the balance between prohibiting racism and freedom of expression.[237] An attempt to ban the swastika across the EU in early 2005 failed after objections from the British Government and others. In early 2007, while Germany held the European Union presidency, Berlin proposed that the European Union should follow German Criminal Law and criminalise thedenial of the Holocaust and the display of Nazi symbols including the swastika, which is based on the Ban on the Symbols of Unconstitutional Organisations Act. This led to an opposition campaign by Hindu groups across Europe against a ban on the swastika. They pointed out that the swastika has been around for 5,000 years as a symbol of peace.[238][239] The proposal to ban the swastika was dropped by Berlin from the proposedEuropean Union wide anti-racism laws on 29 January 2007.[237]
Outside Europe
The manufacture, distribution or broadcasting of a swastika, with the intent to propagate Nazism, is a crime in Brazil as dictated by article 20, paragraph 1, of federal statute 7.716, passed in 1989. The penalty is a two to five years prison term and a fine.[240]
In 2010, theAnti-Defamation League (ADL) downgraded the swastika from its status as a Jewish hate symbol, saying "We know that the swastika has, for some, lost its meaning as the primary symbol of Nazism and instead become a more generalised symbol of hate."[243] The ADL notes on their website that the symbol is often used as "shock graffiti" by juveniles, rather than by individuals who hold white supremacist beliefs, but it is still a predominant symbol among American white supremacists (particularly as a tattoo design) and used with antisemitic intention.[244]
In 2022,Victoria was the first Australian state to ban the display of the Nazi's swastika. People who intentionally break this law will face a one-year jail sentence, a fine of 120 penalty units ($23,077.20 AUD as of 2023, equivalent to £12,076.66 or US$15,385.57), or both.[245][246]
Media
In 2010,Microsoft officially spoke out against use of the swastika by players of thefirst-person shooterCall of Duty: Black Ops. InBlack Ops, players are allowed to customise their name tags to represent whatever they want. The swastika can be created and used, butStephen Toulouse, director ofXbox Live policy and enforcement, said players with the symbol on their name tag will be banned (if someone reports it as inappropriate) from Xbox Live.[247]
As with manyneo-Nazi groups across the world, theAmerican Nazi Party used the swastika as part of its flag before its first dissolution in 1967. The symbol was chosen by the organisation's founder,George Lincoln Rockwell.[249] It was "re-used" by successor organisations in 1983, without the publicity Rockwell's organisation enjoyed.[citation needed]
The swastika, in various iconographic forms, is one of the hate symbols identified in use asgraffiti in US schools, and is described as such in a 1999 US Department of Education document, "Responding to Hate at School: A Guide for Teachers, Counsellors and Administrators", edited by Jim Carnes, which provides advice to educators on how to support students targeted by such hate symbols and address hate graffiti. Examples given show that it is often used alongside other white supremacist symbols, such as those of theKu Klux Klan, and note a"three-bladed" variation used byskinheads, white supremacists, and "some South African extremist groups".[250]
The neo-NaziRussian National Unity group's branch in Estonia is officially registered under the name "Kolovrat" and published an extremist newspaper in 2001 under the same name.[251] A criminal investigation found the paper included an array of racial epithets. One Narva resident was sentenced to one year in jail for distribution ofKolovrat.[252] The Kolovrat has since been used by theRusich Battalion, a Russian militant group known for its operation during thewar in Donbas.[253][254] In 2014 and 2015, members of the UkrainianAzov Regiment were seen with swastika tattoos.[255][256][257][258]
Since the end of the 20th century, and through the early 21st century, confusion and controversy has occurred when personal-use goods bearing the traditional Jain, Buddhist, or Hindu symbols have been exported to the West, notably to North America and Europe, and have been interpreted by purchasers as bearing a Nazi symbol. This has resulted in several such products having been boycotted or pulled from shelves.
When a ten-year-old boy inLynbrook, New York, bought a set ofPokémon cards imported from Japan in 1999, two of the cards contained the left-facing Buddhist swastika. The boy's parents misinterpreted the symbol as the right-facing Nazi swastika and filed a complaint to the manufacturer.Nintendo of America announced that the cards would be discontinued, explaining that what was acceptable in one culture was not necessarily so in another; their action was welcomed by theAnti-Defamation League who recognised that there was no intention to offend, but said that international commerce meant that "Isolating [the swastika] in Asia would just create more problems."[78]
In 2002,Christmas crackers containing plastic toy red pandas sporting swastikas were pulled from shelves after complaints from customers in Canada. The manufacturer, based in China, said the symbol was presented in a traditional sense and not as a reference to the Nazis, and apologised to the customers for the cross-cultural mix-up.[259]
In 2020, the retailerShein pulled a necklace featuring a left-facing swastika pendant from its website after receiving backlash on social media. The retailer apologized for the lack of sensitivity but noted that the swastika was a Buddhist symbol.[260]
Swastika as distinct fromHakenkreuz debate
Beginning in the early 2000s, partially as a reaction to the publication of a book titledThe Swastika: Symbol Beyond Redemption? bySteven Heller,[78] there has been a movement byHindus,Buddhists, andNative Americans to "reclaim" the swastika as a sacred symbol.[2][261] These groups argue that the swastika is distinct from the Nazi symbol. However, Hitler said that the Nazi symbol was the same as the Oriental symbol. On 13 August 1920, speaking to his followers in theHofbräuhaus am Platzl of Munich, Hitler said that the Nazi symbol was shared by various cultures around the world, and could be seen "as far as India and Japan, carved in the temple pillars."[262]
The main barrier to the effort to "reclaim", "restore", or "reassess" the swastika comes from the decades of extremely negative association in the Western world following the Nazi Party's adoption of it in the 1920s. As well,white supremacist groups still cling to the symbol as an icon of power and identity.[244]
Many media organizations in the West also continue to describe neo-Nazi usage of the symbol as a swastika, or sometimes with the "Nazi" adjective written as "Nazi Swastika".[263][264] Groups that oppose this media terminology do not wish to censor such usage, but rather to shift coverage of antisemitic and hateful events to describe the symbol in this context as a "Hakenkreuz" or "hooked cross".[265]
^"Faience button seal".Faience button seal (H99-3814/8756-01) with swastika motif found on the floor of Room 202 (Trench 43).
^"Swastika".Britanica.The swastika also appeared in early Christian and Byzantine art (where it became known as the gammadion cross, or crux gammata, because it could be constructed from four Greek gammas [ Γ ] attached to a common base).
^abWiener, Richard L.; Richter, Erin (2008). "Symbolic hate: Intention to intimidate, political ideology, and group association".Law and Human Behavior.32 (6). American Psychological Association:463–476.doi:10.1007/s10979-007-9119-3.PMID18030607.S2CID25546323.
^First recorded 1871 (OED); alternative historical English spellings includesuastika,swastica, andsvastica; see, for example:Notes and Queries. Oxford University Press. 31 March 1883. p. 259.
^Assasi, Reza (2013)."Swastika: The Forgotten Constellation Representing the Chariot of Mithras".Anthropological Notebooks (Supplement: Šprajc, Ivan; Pehani, Peter, eds.Ancient Cosmologies and Modern Prophets: Proceedings of the 20th Conference of the European Society for Astronomy in Culture).XIX (2). Ljubljana: Slovene Anthropological Society.ISSN1408-032X.
^Freed, Stanley A.Research Pitfalls as a Result of the Restoration of Museum Specimens, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, Volume 376, The Research Potential of Anthropological Museum Collections pp. 229–245, December 1981.
^Jacob G. Ghazarian (2006),The Mediterranean legacy in early Celtic Christianity: a journey from Armenia to IrelandArchived 5 January 2023 at theWayback Machine, Bennett & Bloom, pp. 263, p. 171 "...Quite a different version of the Celtic triskelion, and perhaps the most common pre-Christian symbolism found throughout Armenian cultural tradition, is the round clockwise (occasionally counter-clockwise) whirling sun-like spiral fixed at a centre – the Armenian symbol of eternity."
^K. B. Mehr, M. Markow,Mormon Missionaries enter Eastern Europe, Brigham Young University Press, 2002, pp. 399, p. 252 "...She viewed a tall building with spires and circular windows along the top of the walls. It was engraved with sun stones, a typical symbol of eternity in ancient Armenian architecture."
^Багдасаров, Роман."Свастика: благословение или проклятие".Цена Победы.Echo of Moscow. Archived fromthe original on 10 July 2012. Retrieved7 April 2010. A 2008 interview with historian Roman Bagdasarov. Bagdasarov states that "for some reason, Russian people think that 'kolovrat' is the ancient name of the swastika. But this is absolutely not the case. [...] According to ethnographic records, when I went on expeditions, and so on, the swastika, for example, was called 'veterok' ['breeze']."
^Grzegorzewic, Ziemisław (2016).O Bogach i ludziach. Praktyka i teoria Rodzimowierstwa Słowiańskiego [About the Gods and people. Practice and theory of Slavic Heathenism] (in Polish). Olsztyn: Stowarzyszenie "Kołomir". p. 57.ISBN978-83-940180-8-5.
^abcdeDusenberry, Mary M. (2004).Flowers, dragons and pine trees: Asian textiles in the Spencer Museum of Art. Carol Bier, Helen Foresman Spencer Museum of Art (1st ed.). New York: Hudson Hills Press.ISBN1-55595-238-0.OCLC55016186.
^平成１４年２万５千分１地形図図式 [2002 1:25000 Topographical Map Scheme] (in Japanese). Geospatial Information Authority of Japan. Archived fromthe original on 19 April 2012. Retrieved21 April 2012.
^Robert Ferré. "Amiens CathedralArchived 7 February 2008 at theWayback Machine".Labyrinth Enterprises. Constructed from 1220 to 1402, Amiens Cathedral is the largestGothic cathedral in France, a popular tourist attraction and since 1981 aUNESCOWorld Heritage Site. During World War I,Amiens was targeted by German forces but remained in Allied territory following theBattle of Amiens.
^Treimer, Karl (1971). "Zur Rückerschliessung der illyrischen Götterwelt und ihre Bedeutung für die südslawische Philologie". In Henrik Barić (ed.).Arhiv za Arbanasku starinu, jezik i etnologiju. Vol. I. R. Trofenik. pp. 27–33. p. 32.
^Tirta, Mark (2004). Petrit Bezhani (ed.).Mitologjia ndër shqiptarë (in Albanian). Tirana: Mësonjëtorja.ISBN99927-938-9-9. pp. 69–70, 75.
^Tsvetkov, Vasily (2015). "Р. Ф. Унгерн и попытки организации центра антибольшевистского сопротивления в Монголии (1918–1921 годы). 1-я часть" [R. F. Ungern and attempts to organize a center of anti-Bolshevik resistance in Mongolia (1918–1921). Part 1].Новый исторический вестник [New Historical Bulletin] (in Russian).45 (3):145–172.
^"Der Flaggenkurier".Zeitschrift der Deutschen Gesellschaft für Flaggenkunde (in German) (16/2002 bis 30/2009). Achim und Berlin.ISSN0949-6173. ["The Flag Courier".Journal of the German Society for Flags.]
^Willoughby, C. C. (1897). "An Analysis of the Decorations upon Pottery from the Mississippi Valley".The Journal of American Folklore.10 (36):9–20.doi:10.2307/533845.ISSN0021-8715.JSTOR533845.
^Dobroslav. Природные корни русского национального социализма // Russkaya Pravda. 1996. Спецвыпуск No. 1 (3). С. 3.
^Wirth, Herman (2007).Хроника Ура-Линда. Древнейшая история Европы [Chronicle of Ura-Linda. Ancient history of Europe] (in Russian). Moscow: Вече. p. 454.
^Dobrovolsky, Alexey Alexandrovich (1996).Природные корни русского национального социализма [The Natural Roots of Russian National Socialism] (in Russian).Russkaya Pravda.
^Schnirelmann, Victor A. (2000). "Perun, Svarog and Others: Russian Neo-Paganism in Search of Itself".The Cambridge Journal of Anthropology.21 (3): 25.JSTOR23818709.
^Pilkington, Hilary; Popov, Anton (2009). "Understanding Neo-paganism in Russia: Religion? Ideology? Philosophy? Fantasy?". In George McKay (ed.).Subcultures and New Religious Movements in Russia and East-Central Europe. Peter Lang. p. 282.ISBN978-3-03911-921-9.
^"Act C of 2012 on the Criminal Code, Section 335: Use of Symbols of Totalitarianism"(PDF).Ministry of Interior of Hungary. p. 97.Archived(PDF) from the original on 22 February 2017. Retrieved21 February 2017.Any person who: a) distributes, b) uses before the public at large, or c) publicly exhibits, the swastika, the insignia of the SS, the arrow cross, the sickle and hammer, the five-pointed red star or any symbol depicting the above so as to breach public peace – specifically in a way to offend the dignity of victims of totalitarian regimes and their right to sanctity – is guilty of a misdemeanor punishable by custodial arrest, insofar as it did not result in a more serious criminal offense.
^Schofield, Matthew (30 July 2015)."How Germany dealt with its symbols of hate".mcclatchydc.com. McClatchy DC Bureau. Retrieved18 August 2017.It's notable that when Ku Klux Klan members recently rallied in South Carolina, they carried both the battle flag and the Nazi swastika. The two flags in recent years have been commonly seen together at white supremacist groups and gatherings.
^Mudde, Cas, ed. (2005).Racist Extremism in Central and Eastern Europe. Routledge studies in extremism and democracy. London: Routledge. p. 61.ISBN978-0-415-35593-3.
^Hitler, Adolf. (13 August 1920) "Why We Are Antisemites".Hofbräuhaus am Platzl, Munich. As transcribed by Reginald H. Phelps in "Dokumentation" inVierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte (PDF), published October 1968. In German: "Sie finden dieses Kreuz als Hackenkreuz nicht nur hier, sondern genau so in Indien und Japan in den Tempelpfosten eingemeißelt. Es ist das Hackenkreuz der einst von arischer Kultur gegründeten Gemeinwesen." English translation: "You will find this cross as a swastika as far as India and Japan, carved in the temple pillars. It is the swastika, which was once a sign of established communities of Aryan Culture."
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![The Samarra bowl, from Iraq, circa 4,000 BCE, held at the Pergamonmuseum, Berlin. The swastika in the centre of the design is a reconstruction.[89]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aSamarra_bowl.jpg)
![Swastika seals from Mohenjo-daro, Pakistan, of the Indus Valley civilisation, circa 2,100 – 1,750 BCE, preserved at the British Museum[90]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aIndusValleySeals_swastikas.JPG)
![The petroglyph with swastikas, Gegham mountains, Armenia, circa 8,000 – 5,000 BCE[97]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aThe_petroglyph_with_swastikas%2c_in_Geghama_mountains%2c_Armenia.jpg)
![Avar old petroglyph[94]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aSwastika_of_Avars_Daghestan.JPG)
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![Ancient symbol the Hands of God or "Hands of Svarog" (Polish: Ręce Swaroga)[117]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aReceBogaSwargi.svg)
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