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Freshwater swamp forests, orflooded forests, areforests which are inundated withfreshwater, either permanently or seasonally. They normally occur along the lower reaches ofrivers and around freshwaterlakes. Freshwaterswamp forests are found in a range ofclimate zones, fromboreal throughtemperate^[1] andsubtropical totropical.^[2]

A freshwater swamp forest is a type ofwetlandecosystem characterized by its uniquehydrology and vegetation. These forests are typically found in low-lying areas, riverbanks, andfloodplains where there is a consistent supply offreshwater.^[3] A forest that is frequently flooded with relatively fresh water rich in minerals is referred to as a freshwater swamp forest. Since tropical freshwater swamp forests are a subset of tropical rainforests, they share a number of environmental traits with other tropical rainforest formations.^[4]

Beyond these shared characteristics, however, the environment in freshwater swamp forests and other tropical rain forest formations can vary greatly. In inland, freshwater swamp forests, flooding is typically sporadic, irregular, or seasonal. The depth of the water also varies greatly, from a few centimeters to several meters. These physical factors affect the ecology of freshwater swamp forests, either singly or in combination.^[5]

Rain, rivers, and groundwater are all sources of water for freshwater swamp forests, whereas rain is the only source of water for peat swamp forests.^[6] The hue of the water in the freshwater swamp forest is typically an indication of the quantities of plant materials present in the water and soil.^[7] Contrary to ombrotrophic swamp forests, which only absorb nutrients from rain, freshwater swamp forest soils are relatively nutrient-rich.^[8] In freshwater swamp forests, rain and changes in the water table result in the following deposition of nutrients and alluvial soils. Due to the nutrient-rich soils of freshwater swamp forests, wetland rice farming and oil palm plantations have become very prevalent in agriculture.^[9]

Within aquatic ecosystems, geomorphological, biological, and biogeomorphological processes and functions are significantly influenced by the flow of water.^[10][11] Flow significantly affects the geomorphology, affecting the spatial and temporal benthic community structure.^[12][13] Freshwater swamp forests are permanently or seasonally inundated byfreshwater, with water levels that fluctuate throughout the year. They are often associated with slow-moving ormeandering rivers,oxbow lakes, and other water bodies.^[14] Macroinvertebrate assemblages were significantly influenced by hydrological connectivity, with highly connected water bodies exhibiting more macroinvertebrate diversity than isolated water bodies, which tended to have less diverse assemblages and were predominated by a small number of taxa. Similar impacts have been seen in tropical ecosystems where flooding during the wet or monsoon season has led to an increase in migratory species proportions and changes in community assemblages.^[15] On a smaller scale, modifications to the flow regime that result in changes to the physical environment can boost habitat variety and, as a result, boost species diversity. Additionally, a highly varied environment might provide as a haven for species during times of stress like flooding or drought.^[16] Freshwater swamp forests contain soft, unstable, and anoxic soil due to their waterlogged condition, which may have influenced the evolution of unique root adaptations in these trees that resemble those seen in a real mangrove forest.^[17][18]

The vegetation in freshwater swamp forests is adapted to survive inwaterlogged conditions. Common tree species include various types ofmangroves, palms, andhardwood trees likemahogany andebony. The tree canopy tends to be dense and can create a shaded environment beneath.^[19]

Freshwater swamp forests are rich inbiodiversity and provide habitat for a wide range of plant and animal species. They support numerous aquatic species,amphibians, reptiles, and mammals. Birds are also abundant in these ecosystems. The flooded conditions can make these areas particularly important for fish breeding andspawning.^[20] Fires of various intensities were used in southern Sumatra to burn down the swamp forest to make way for agriculture. There, a rich and complex environment was reduced to a habitat made up of uniform stands of fire-resistant Melaleuca L. species thickets as a result of widespread and frequent fires.^[21] Furthermore, improper management of these ecosystems through massive logging and agricultural conversion has resulted in serious deterioration and loss of ecological and biological diversity.^[22]

Many plants in freshwater swamp forests have special adaptations to cope withwaterlogged soils, such aspneumatophores (aerial roots) in mangroves for oxygen exchange.^[23][24] Some animals have adapted to life in these wet environments, likeamphibians withpermeable skin that can absorb oxygen from water.^[25]

Freshwater swamp forests offer a variety ofecosystem services. They act as naturalbuffers against flooding by absorbing excess water during heavy rains. They also filter water, helping to improvewater quality by trapping sediments and pollutants.^[26] These forests are crucial forcarbon sequestration, playing a role in mitigatingclimate change.^[27][28]

Local communities often rely on freshwater swamp forests for resources such astimber,non-timber forest products (e.g., fruits, honey), and fish. Traditional agriculture may take place in the drier, elevated areas around theswamp forest. However, unsustainablelogging and land conversion can threaten theseecosystems.^[29]

Freshwater swamp forests are globally important and often designated as protected areas orRamsar wetlands due to their ecological significance.Conservation efforts aim to protect theseecosystems fromdegradation and promote sustainable land use practices.^[30][31]

Freshwater swamp forests are vulnerable tohabitat destruction and degradation due tourbanization,agriculture,logging, anddrainage for development.Climate change, including rising sea levels, can further threaten theseecosystems by altering water levels andsalinity.^[32]

Globally, freshwater swamp forests are found inSoutheast Asia,tropical Africa, andSouth America, with the largest areas being part of theAmazon basin. In Southeast Asia, they are found all over the region, frequently close to major rivers like theMekong,Chao Phraya, andIrrawaddy inThailand andMyanmar, as well as numerous smaller systems like theSedili rivers inJohor.^[33] Although freshwater swamp forests are frequently found in wet climates, they can also be found in areas that are seasonally drier, such as westNew Guinea andeast Java.^[34]

Freshwater swamp forests are a relatively understudied forest type in Southeast Asia, primarily because they are difficult to access and canharbor diseases spread by insects, such asmosquitoes.^[35] In theAmazon Basin ofBrazil, a seasonally flooded forest is known as avárzea, and refers to awhitewater-inundated forest.Igapó refers toblackwater-inundated forest.^[36][37]Mangrove andpeat swamp forests, for example, have a tendency to draw more attention than otherwetland habitats.^[38] Peat swamp forests are swamp forests where waterlogged soils prevent woody debris from fullydecomposing, which over time creates a thick layer of acidicpeat.^[39]

• Eastern Congolian swamp forests (Democratic Republic of the Congo)
• Niger Delta swamp forests (Nigeria)
• Western Congolian swamp forests (Republic of the Congo, Democratic Republic of the Congo).

• Northern New Guinea lowland rain and freshwater swamp forests (Indonesia,Papua New Guinea)
• Southern New Guinea freshwater swamp forests (Indonesia, Papua New Guinea)

• Borneo peat swamp forests (Brunei, Indonesia,Malaysia)
• Chao Phraya freshwater swamp forests (Thailand)
• Irrawaddy freshwater swamp forests (Myanmar)
• Peninsular Malaysian peat swamp forests (Malaysia, Thailand)
• Ratargul Swamp Forest (Bangladesh)^[40]
• Sundarbans freshwater swamp forests in Bangladesh and India
• Red River freshwater swamp forests (Vietnam)
• Southwest Borneo freshwater swamp forests (Indonesia)
• Tonle Sap-Mekong peat swamp forests (Cambodia, Vietnam)
• Wathurana freshwater swamp forest (Sri Lanka)
• Myristica swamp (India)
• Nelapattu Bird Sanctuary (India)

• Cantão igapó forest (Brazil)
• Gurupa várzea (Brazil)
• Iquitos várzea (Bolivia, Brazil,Peru)
• Marajó várzea (Brazil)
• Monte Alegre várzea (Brazil)
• Orinoco Delta swamp forests (Guyana,Venezuela)
• Pantanos de Centla (Mexico)
• Paramaribo swamp forests (Guyana,Suriname)
• Purus várzea (Brazil)

• Coniferous swamp forest
• Mangrove swamp (saltwater swamp)

• Swamps
• Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests

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