Following the death of his fatherIgor in 945, Sviatoslav's motherOlga reigned asregent in Kiev until 962.[6][7][8][9] His decade-long reign over theKievan Rus' was marked by rapid expansion into theVolga River valley, thePontic steppe, and theBalkans, leading him to carve out for himself the largest state inEurope. In 969, he moved his seat toPereyaslavets on theDanube.[10][11] In 970, he appointed his sonsYaropolk andOleg as subordinate princes of Kiev and Drelinia, while he appointedVladimir, his son by his housekeeper and servantMalusha, as the prince ofNovgorod.[12][13]
In contrast with his mother's conversion toChristianity, Sviatoslav remained a staunchpagan all of his life.[14] Due to his abrupt death in an ambush, his conquests, for the most part, were not consolidated into a functioning empire, while his failure to establish a stable succession led to afratricidal feud among his three sons, resulting in the deaths of Yaropolk and Oleg, while Vladimir emerged as the sole ruler.[15]
ThePrimary Chronicle records Sviatoslav as the first ruler of theKievan Rus' with a name ofSlavic origin, as opposed to his predecessors, whose names hadOld Norse forms. Some scholars see the name of Sviatoslav, composed of the Slavic roots for "holy" and "glory", as an artificial derivation combining the names of his predecessorsOleg andRurik,[16] but modern researchers question the possibility of such a translation of names from one language to another.[17][18]Sveinald orSveneld is identical to Sviatoslav, as the Norse rendition of the Slavic name.[19]The 10th-century Eastern Roman EmperorConstantine VII's Greek-language workDe Administrando Imperio ("On the Governance of the Empire") records his name asΣφενδοσθλάβος ("Sfendostlabos").
Almost nothing is known about Sviatoslav's childhood and youth, which he spent reigning inNovgorod.[20] Sviatoslav's father,Igor, was killed by theDrevlians around 945, and his mother,Olga, ruled asregent inKiev until Sviatoslav reached maturity (ca. 963).[21] Sviatoslav was tutored by aVarangian named Asmud.[22] The tradition of employing Varangian tutors for the sons of ruling princes survived well into the 11th century. Sviatoslav appears to have had little patience for administration. His life was spent with hisdruzhina (roughly, "company") in permanent warfare against neighbouring states.[23]
According to thePrimary Chronicle, he carried neither wagons nor kettles on his expeditions, and he boiled no meat, rather cutting off small strips of horseflesh, game, or beef to eat after roasting it on the coals. Nor did he have a tent, rather spreading out a horse-blanket under him and setting his saddle under his head, and all his retinue did likewise.[24]
Sviatoslav's mother, Olga, with her escort inConstantinople, a miniature from the late 11th century chronicle ofJohn Skylitzes.
Sviatoslav's appearance has been described very clearly byLeo the Deacon, who himself attended the meeting of Sviatoslav withJohn I Tzimiskes. Following Deacon's memories, Sviatoslav was a bright-eyed man of average height but of stalwart build, much more sturdy than Tzimiskes. He had a bald head and a wispy beard and wore a bushy moustache and asidelock as a sign of his nobility.[25] He preferred to dress in white, and it was noted that his garments were much cleaner than those of his men, although he had a lot in common with his warriors. He wore a single large gold earring bearing acarbuncle and twopearls.[26]
Sviatoslav's mother,Olga, converted to Orthodox Christianity at the court of theByzantine EmperorConstantine Porphyrogenitus in 957.[27] Sviatoslav remained apagan all of his life. In the treaty of 971 between Sviatoslav and the Byzantine emperorJohn I Tzimiskes, the Rus' swore by the godsPerun andVeles.[28] According to thePrimary Chronicle, he believed that his warriors (druzhina) would lose respect for him and mock him if he became a Christian.[29] The allegiance of his warriors was of paramount importance in his conquest of an empire that stretched from the Volga to the Danube.
Very little is known of Sviatoslav's family life. It is possible that he was not the only (or the eldest) son of his parents. TheRus'-Byzantine treaty of 945 mentions a certain Predslava, Volodislav's wife, as the noblest of the Rus' women after Olga. The fact that Predslava was Oleg's mother is presented byVasily Tatishchev. He also speculated that Predslava came from the Hungarian nobility.George Vernadsky was among many historians to speculate that Volodislav was Igor's eldest son and heir who died at some point during Olga's regency. Another chronicle relates that Oleg (? – 977?) was the eldest son of Igor. At the time of Igor's death, Sviatoslav was still a child, and he was raised by his mother or under her instructions. Her influence, however, did not extend to his religious observance.
Sviatoslav had several children, but the origin of his wives is not specified in the chronicle. By his wives, he hadYaropolk andOleg.[30] ByMalusha, a woman of indeterminate origins,[31] Sviatoslav hadVladimir, who would ultimately break with his father's paganism andconvert Rus' to Christianity.John Skylitzes reported that Vladimir had a brother namedSfengus; whether this Sfengus was a son of Sviatoslav, a son of Malusha by a prior or subsequent husband, or an unrelated Rus' nobleman is unclear.[32]
Shortly after his accession to the throne, Sviatoslav began campaigning to expand Rus' control over the Volga valley and thePontic steppe region. His greatest success was theconquest of Khazaria, which for centuries had been one of the strongest states ofEastern Europe. The sources are not clear about the roots of the conflict between Khazaria and Rus', so several possibilities have been suggested. The Rus' had an interest in removing the Khazar hold on theVolga trade route because the Khazars collected duties from the goods transported by the Volga. Historians have suggested that the Byzantine Empire may have incited the Rus' against the Khazars, who fell out with the Byzantines after the persecutions of theJews in the reign ofRomanus I Lecapenus.[33]
The Kievan Rus' at the beginning of Sviatoslav's reign (in red), showing his sphere of influence to 972 (in orange)
Sviatoslav began by rallying theEast Slavic vassal tribes of the Khazars to his cause. Those who would not join him, such as theVyatichs, were attacked and forced to pay tribute to the Kievan Rus' rather than to the Khazars.[34] According to a legend recorded in the Primary Chronicle, Sviatoslav sent a message to the Vyatich rulers, consisting of a single phrase: "I want to come at you!" (Old East Slavickhochiu na vy iti)[35] This phrase is used in modern Russian and Ukrainian (usually misquoted asidu na vy) to denote an unequivocal declaration of one's intentions. Proceeding by theOka and Volga rivers, he attackedVolga Bulgaria[36]. He employedOghuz andPecheneg mercenaries in this campaign, perhaps to counter the superiorcavalry of the Khazars and Bulgars.[37]
Sviatoslav destroyed the Khazar city ofSarkel around 965, possibly sacking (but not occupying) the Khazar city ofKerch on theCrimea as well.[38] At Sarkel he established a Rus' settlement called Belaya Vyezha ("the white tower" or "the white fortress", the East Slavic translation for "Sarkel").[39] He subsequently destroyed the Khazar capital ofAtil.[40] A visitor to Atil wrote soon after Sviatoslav's campaign: "The Rus' attacked, and no grape or raisin remained, not a leaf on a branch."[41] The exact chronology of his Khazar campaign is uncertain and disputed; for example,Mikhail Artamonov andDavid Christian proposed that the sack of Sarkel came after the destruction of Atil.[42]
AlthoughIbn Haukal reports the sack ofSamandar by Sviatoslav, the Rus' leader did not bother to occupy the Khazar heartlands north of theCaucasus Mountains permanently. On his way back to Kiev, Sviatoslav chose to strike against theOssetians and force them into subservience.[43] Therefore, Khazar successor statelets continued their precarious existence in the region.[44] The destruction of Khazar imperial power paved the way for Kievan Rus' to dominate north–south trade routes through the steppe and across theBlack Sea, routes that formerly had been a major source of revenue for the Khazars. Moreover, Sviatoslav's campaigns led to increased Slavic settlement in the region of theSaltovo-Mayaki culture, greatly changing the demographics and culture of the transitional area between the forest and the steppe.[45]
The annihilation of Khazaria was undertaken against the background of the Rus'-Byzantine alliance, concluded in the wake ofIgor's Byzantine campaign in 944.[46] Close military ties between the Rus' and Byzantium are illustrated by the fact, reported by John Skylitzes, that a Rus' detachment accompanied Byzantine EmperorNikephoros Phokas in his victorious naval expedition toCrete.
In 967 or 968,[47] Nikephoros sent his agent,Kalokyros, to persuade Sviatoslav to assist the Byzantines in a war againstBulgaria.[48] Sviatoslav was paid 15,000 pounds of gold and set sail with an army of 60,000 men, including thousands of Pecheneg mercenaries.[49][50]
Sviatoslav defeated the Bulgarian rulerBoris II[51] and proceeded to occupy the whole of northern Bulgaria. Meanwhile, the Byzantines bribed the Pechenegs toattack and besiege Kiev, where Olga stayed with Sviatoslav's son Vladimir. The siege was relieved by thedruzhina ofPretich, and immediately following the Pecheneg retreat, Olga sent a reproachful letter to Sviatoslav. He promptly returned and defeated the Pechenegs, who continued to threaten Kiev.
Pursuit of Sviatoslav's warriors by the Byzantine army, a miniature from 11th century chronicles ofJohn Skylitzes.
Sviatoslav refused to turn his Balkan conquests over to the Byzantines, and the parties fell out as a result. To the chagrin of hisboyars and his mother (who died within three days after learning about his decision), Sviatoslav decided to move his capital toPereyaslavets in the mouth of the Danube due to the great potential of that location as a commercial hub. In the Primary Chronicle record for 969, Sviatoslav explains that it is to Pereyaslavets, the centre of his lands, that "all the riches flow: gold, silks, wine, and various fruits fromGreece, silver and horses fromHungary andBohemia, and from Rus' furs, wax, honey, and slaves".
In summer 969, Sviatoslav left Rus' again, dividing his dominion into three parts, each under a nominal rule of one of his sons. At the head of an army that included Pecheneg and Magyar auxiliary troops, he invaded Bulgaria again, devastatingThrace, capturing the city ofPhilippopolis, and massacring its inhabitants. Nikephoros responded by repairing the defences of Constantinople and raising new squadrons of armoured cavalry. In the midst of his preparations, Nikephoros was overthrown and killed byJohn Tzimiskes, who thus became the new Byzantine emperor.[52]
John Tzimiskes first attempted to persuade Sviatoslav to leave Bulgaria, but he was unsuccessful. Challenging Byzantine authority, Sviatoslav crossed the Danube and laid siege toAdrianople, causing panic in the streets of Constantinople in summer 970.[53] Later that year, the Byzantines launched a counteroffensive. Being occupied with suppressing a revolt brought byBardas Phokas inAsia Minor, John Tzimiskes sent his commander-in-chief,Bardas Skleros, who defeated the coalition of Rus', Pechenegs, Magyars, and Bulgarians in theBattle of Arcadiopolis.[54] Meanwhile, John, having quelled the revolt of Bardas Phokas, came to the Balkans with a large army and promoting himself as the liberator of Bulgaria from Sviatoslav, penetrated the impracticable mountain passes and shortly thereafter capturedMarcianopolis, where the Rus' were holding a number of Bulgar princes hostage.
Siege of Durostorum in Manasses Chronicle
Sviatoslav retreated toDorostolon, which the Byzantine armiesbesieged for sixty-five days. Cut off and surrounded, Sviatoslav came to terms with John and agreed to abandon the Balkans, renounce his claims to the southern Crimea, and return west of theDnieper River. In return, the Byzantine emperor supplied the Rus' with food and safe passage home. Sviatoslav and his men set sail and landed onBerezan Island at the mouth of the Dnieper, where they made camp for the winter. Several months later, according to the Primary Chronicle, their camp was devastated by famine, so that even a horse's head could not be bought for less than a half-grivna.[55] While Sviatoslav's campaign brought no tangible results for the Rus', it weakened the Bulgarian state and left it vulnerable to the attacks ofBasil the Bulgar-Slayer four decades later.
Fearing that the peace with Sviatoslav would not endure, the Byzantine emperor induced thePechenegkhanKurya to kill Sviatoslav before he reached Kiev. This was in line with the policy outlined byConstantine VII Porphyrogenitus inDe Administrando Imperio of fomenting strife between the Rus' and the Pechenegs.[56] According to the Slavic chronicle,Sveneld attempted to warn Sviatoslav to avoid theDnieper rapids, but the prince slighted his wise advice and was ambushed and slain by the Pechenegs when he tried to cross the cataracts nearKhortytsia early in 972. The Primary Chronicle reports that his skull wasmade into a chalice by the Pecheneg khan.[57]
Following Sviatoslav's death, tensions among his sons grew. A war broke out between his legitimate sons,Oleg andYaropolk, in 976, at the conclusion of which Oleg was killed. In 977,Vladimir fled abroad to escape Oleg's fate where he raised an army ofVarangians and returned in 978. Yaropolk was killed, and Vladimir became the sole ruler of Kievan Rus'.[15][58]
Sviatoslav has long been a hero ofBelarusian,Russian, andUkrainian patriots due to his great military successes. His figure first attracted attention of Russian artists and poets during theRusso-Turkish War (1768–1774), which provided obvious parallels with Sviatoslav's push towards Constantinople. Russia's southward expansion and the imperialistic ventures ofCatherine II in the Balkans seemed to have been legitimised by Sviatoslav's campaigns eight centuries earlier.
Ivan Akimov.Sviatoslav's Return from the Danube to His Family in Kiev (1773)
Among the works created during the war wasYakov Knyazhnin's tragedyOlga (1772). The Russian playwright chose to introduce Sviatoslav as his protagonist, although his active participation in the events following Igor's death is out of sync with the traditional chronology. Knyazhnin's rivalNikolai Nikolev (1758–1815) also wrote a play on the subject of Sviatoslav's life.Ivan Akimov's paintingSviatoslav's Return from the Danube to Kiev (1773) explores the conflict between military honour and family attachment. It is a vivid example ofPoussinesque rendering of early medieval subject matter.
Interest in Sviatoslav's career increased in the 19th century.Klavdiy Lebedev depicted an episode of Sviatoslav's meeting withEmperor John in his well-known painting, whileEugene Lanceray sculpted anequestrian statue of Sviatoslav in the early 20th century.[59] Sviatoslav appears in the 1913 poem ofVelimir KhlebnikovWritten before the war (#70. Написанное до войны)[60] as an epitome of militant Slavdom:[61]
Знаменитый сок Дуная, Наливая в глубь главы, Стану пить я, вспоминая Светлых клич: "Иду на вы!".
Pouring the famed juice of the Danube Into the depth of my head, I shall drink and remember The cry of the bright ones: "I come at you!"
Sviatoslav is the villain of the novelThe Lost Kingdom, or the Passing of the Khazars, by Samuel Gordon,[62] a fictionalised account of the destruction of Khazaria by the Rus'. The Slavic warrior figures in a more positive context in the story "Chernye Strely Vyaticha" by Vadim Viktorovich Kargalov; the story is included in his bookIstoricheskie povesti.[63]
In 2005, reports circulated that a village in theBelgorod region had erected a monument to Sviatoslav's victory over the Khazars by the Russian sculptorVyacheslav Klykov. The reports described the 13-metre tall statue as depicting a Rus' cavalryman trampling a supine Khazar bearing aStar of David andKolovrat. This created an outcry within theJewish community of Russia. The controversy was further exacerbated by Klykov's connections withPamyat and other anti-Semitic organisations, as well as by his involvement in the "letter of 500", a controversial appeal to the Prosecutor General to review all Jewish organisations in Russia for extremism.[64] The Press Centre of the Belgorod Regional Administration responded by stating that a planned monument to Sviatoslav had not yet been constructed but would show "respect towards representatives of all nationalities and religions."[65] When the statue was unveiled, the shield bore a twelve-pointed star.
Sviatoslav is the main character of the booksKnyaz (Kniaz) andThe Hero (Geroi), written by Russian writerAlexander Mazin. Sviatoslav plays a major role in theSoviet historical anthology filmThe Legend of Princess Olga, which tells the story of his mother, Olga. Sviatoslav appears in various segments, both as a child as an adult. The adult prince Sviatoslav is played byLes Serdyuk.
In November 2011, a Ukrainian fisherman found a one metre long sword in the waters of the Dnieper onKhortytsia, near where Sviatoslav is believed to have been killed in 972. The handle is made out of four different metals including gold and silver, and could possibly have belonged to Sviatoslav himself, but this is speculation—the sword could have belonged to any nobleman from that period.[66]
Monument to Svyatoslav the Brave in the village of Stari Petrivtsi, Kyiv region
^SeeА.М. Членов. К вопросу об имени Святослава, in Личные имена в прошлом, настоящем и будущем: проблемы антропонимики (Moscow, 1970).
^Anna Litvina. Fyodor Uspensky. The choice of the name of the Russian princes in the X–XVI centuries. Dynastic history through the prism of anthroponymy. – Moscow, 2006 .– 904 p. – 1000 copies. – ISBN 5-85759-339-5. – P. 41.
^Elena Rydzevskaya. Ancient Russia and Scandinavia in the 9th–14th centuries Moscow: Nauka, 1978. Pp. 203
^Paul R. Magocsi (2010) A History of Ukraine: The Land and Its Peoples,University of Toronto Press, p. 68,ISBN1442610212.
^If Olga was indeed born in 879, as thePrimary Chronicle seems to imply, she should have been about 65 at the time of Sviatoslav's birth. There are clearly some problems with chronology.
^Cross and Sherbowitz-Wetzor,Primary Chronicle, p. 84.
^Cross and Sherbowitz-Wetzor,Primary Chronicle, p. 84.
^For the alternative translations of the same passage of the Greek original that say that Sviatoslav may have not shaven but wispy beard and not one but two sidelocks on each side of his head, see e.g. Ian Heath "The Vikings (Elite 3)", Osprey Publishing 1985;ISBN978-0-85045-565-6, p.60 or David Nicolle "Armies of Medieval Russia 750–1250 (Men-at-Arms 333)" Osprey Publishing 1999;ISBN978-1-85532-848-8, p.44
^Vernadsky 276–277. The sidelock is reminiscent of Turkic hairstyles and practices and was later mimicked byCossacks.
^Based on his analysis ofDe Ceremoniis,Alexander Nazarenko hypothesises that Olga hoped to orchestrate a marriage between Sviatoslav and a Byzantine princess. If her proposal was peremptorily declined (as it most certainly would have been), it is hardly surprising that Sviatoslav would look at the Byzantine Empire and her Christian culture with suspicion. Nazarenko 302.
^Christian 345. It is disputed whether Sviatoslav invaded the land of Vyatichs that year. The only campaign against the Vyatichs explicitly mentioned in the Primary Chronicle is dated to 966.
^Novoseltsev, A.P (1990).ХАЗАРСКОЕ ГОСУДАРСТВО И ЕГО РОЛЬ В ИСТОРИИ ВОСТОЧНОЙ ЕВРОПЫ И КАВКАЗА [The Khazar State and its role in the history of Eastern Europe and the Caucasus] (in Russian). Moscow. p. 225.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)Sviatoslav’s alleged campaign against Volga Bulgaria in 965 remains a matter of debate. A. P. Novoseltsev denied it, citing the absence of archaeological evidence of destruction and emphasizing that Volga Bulgaria, having adopted Islam and oriented itself toward Muslim Central Asia, was not an ally of the Khazars and maintained strained relations with them; M. Kotlyar, however, considered a conflict possible due to trade restrictions along the Volga route
^For Sviatoslav's reliance on nomad cavalry,see, e.g., Franklin and Shepard 149; Christian 298; Pletneva 18.
^Christian 298. The Primary Chronicle is very succinct about the whole campaign against the Khazars, saying only that Sviatoslav "took their city and Belaya Vezha".
^The town was an important trade center located near theportage between the Volga andDon Rivers. By the early 12th century, however, it had been destroyed by theKipchaks.
^The campaign against the Ossetians is attested in the Primary Chronicle. TheNovgorod First Chronicle specifies that Sviatoslav resettled the Ossetians near Kiev, but Sakharov finds this claim dubitable.
^TheMandgelis Document refers to a Khazar potentate in theTaman Peninsula around 985, long after Sviatoslav's death.Kedrenos reported that the Byzantines and Rus' collaborated in the conquest of a Khazar kingdom in the Crimea in 1016, and still later,Ibn al-Athir reported an unsuccessful attack byal-Fadl ibn Muhammad against the Khazars in the Caucasus in 1030. For more information on these and other references,seeKhazars#Late references to the Khazars.
^Most historians believe the Greeks were interested in the destruction of Khazaria. Another school of thought essentializes the report ofYahya of Antioch that, prior to the Danube campaign, the Byzantines and the Rus' were at war. See Sakharov, chapter I.
^The exact date of Sviatoslav's Bulgarian campaign, which likely did not commence until the conclusion of his Khazar campaign, is unknown.
^Mikhail Tikhomirov andVladimir Pashuto, among others, assume that the Emperor was interested primarily in diverting Sviatoslav's attention fromChersonesos, a Byzantine possession in theCrimea. Indeed, Leo the Deacon three times mentions that Sviatoslav and his father Igor controlledCimmerian Bosporus. If so, a conflict of interests in the Crimea was inevitable. The Suzdal Chronicle, though a rather late source, also mentions Sviatoslav's war against Chersonesos. In thepeace treaty of 971, Sviatoslav promised not to wage wars against eitherConstantinople or Chersonesos. Byzantine sources also report that Kalokyros attempted to persuade Sviatoslav to support Kalokyros in a coup against the reigning Byzantine emperor. As remuneration for his help, Sviatoslav was supposed to retain a permanent hold on Bulgaria. Modern historians, however, assign little historical importance to this story. Kendrick 157.
^All figures in this article, including the numbers of Sviatoslav's troops, are based on the reports of Byzantine sources, which may differ from those of the Slavonic chronicles. Greek sources report Khazars and "Turks" in Sviatoslav's army as well as Pechenegs. As used in such Byzantine writings asDe Administrando Imperio by Constantine Porphyrogenitus, "Turks" refers toMagyars. The Rus'-Magyar alliance resulted in the Hungarian expedition against the second largest city of the empire,Thessalonica, in 968.
^W. Treadgold,A History of the Byzantine State and Society, 509
^Boris II was captured by the Byzantines in 971 and carried off toConstantinople as a prisoner.
^Simultaneously,Otto I attacked Byzantine possessions in the south of Italy. This remarkable coincidence may be interpreted as an evidence of the anti-Byzantine German-Russian alliance. See: Manteuffel 41.
^Grekov 445–446. The Byzantine sources report the enemy casualties to be as high as 20,000, a figure modern historians find to be highly improbable.
^Constantine VII pointed out that, by virtue of their controlling the Dnieper cataracts, the Pechenegs may easily attack and destroy the Rus' vessels sailing along the river.
^The use of a defeated enemy's skull as a drinking vessel is reported by numerous authors through history among various steppe peoples, such as theScythians. Kurya likely intended this as a compliment to Sviatoslav; sources report that Kurya and his wife drank from the skull and prayed for a son as brave as the deceased Rus' warlord. Christian 344; Pletneva 19; Cross and Sherbowitz-Wetzor 90.
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