Sutra (Sanskrit:सूत्र,romanized: sūtra,lit. 'string, thread')[1] inIndian literary traditions refers to anaphorism or a collection of aphorisms in the form of a manual or, more broadly, a condensed manual or text. Sutras are a genre of ancient and medieval Indian texts found inHinduism,Buddhism andJainism.[1][2]
In Hinduism, sutras are a distinct type of literary composition, a compilation of short aphoristic statements.[2][3] Each sutra is any short rule, like a theorem distilled into few words or syllables, around which teachings of ritual, philosophy, grammar, or any field of knowledge can be woven.[1][2] The oldest sutras of Hinduism are found in theBrahmana andAranyaka layers of theVedas.[4][5] Every school ofHindu philosophy, Vedic guides for rites of passage, various fields of arts, law, and social ethics developed respective sutras, which help teach and transmit ideas from one generation to the next.[3][6][7]
In Buddhism, sutras, also known assuttas, arecanonical scriptures, many of which are regarded as records of the oral teachings ofGautama Buddha. They are not aphoristic, but are quite detailed, sometimes with repetition. This may reflect a derivation from Vedic or Sanskritsūkta (well spoken), rather than fromsūtra (thread).[8]
In Jainism, sutras, also known assuyas, are canonical sermons ofMahavira contained in theJain Agamas as well as some later (post-canonical) normative texts.[9][10]
A 17th-century birch bark manuscript of ancient Panini Sutra, a treatise on grammar,[11] found in Kashmir
The Sanskrit wordSūtra (Sanskrit: सूत्र,Pali:sutta,Ardha Magadhi:sūya) means "string, thread".[1][2] The root of the word issiv, "that which sews and holds things together".[1][12] The word is related tosūci (Sanskrit: सूचि) meaning "needle, list",[13] andsūnā (Sanskrit: सूना) meaning "woven".[1]
In the context of literature,sūtra means a distilled collection of syllables and words, any form or manual of "aphorism, rule, direction" hanging together like threads with which the teachings of ritual, philosophy, grammar, or any field of knowledge can be woven.[1][2]
Asūtra is any short rule, states Moriz Winternitz, in Indian literature; it is "a theorem condensed in few words".[2] A collection ofsūtras becomes a text, and this is also calledsūtra (often capitalized in Western literature).[1][2]
Asūtra is different from other components such asShlokas,Anuvyakhayas andVyakhyas found in ancient Indian literature.[14] Asūtra is a condensed rule which succinctly states the message,[15] while aShloka is a verse that conveys the complete message and is structured to certain rules of musical meter,[16][17] anAnuvyakhaya is an explanation of the reviewed text, while aVyakhya is a comment by the reviewer.[14][18]
Sutras first appear in theBrahmana andAranyaka layer of Vedic literature.[5] They grow in number in the Vedangas, such as the Shrauta Sutras and Kalpa Sutras.[1] These were designed so that they can be easily communicated from a teacher to student, memorized by the recipient for discussion or self-study or as reference.[2]
A sutra by itself is condensed shorthand, and the threads of syllable are difficult to decipher or understand without associated scholarlyBhasya or deciphering commentary that fills in the "weft".[21][22]
The oldest manuscripts that have survived into the modern era that contain extensive sutras are part of theVedas, dated from the late 2nd millennium BCE through to the mid 1st millennium BCE.[23] TheAitareya Aranyaka, for example, states Winternitz, is primarily a collection ofsutras.[5] Their use and ancient roots are attested by sutras being mentioned in larger genre of ancient non-Vedic Hindu literature calledGatha,Narashansi,Itihasa, andAkhyana (songs, legends, epics, and stories).[24]
In the history of Indian literature, large compilations of sutras, in diverse fields of knowledge, have been traced to the period from 600 BCE to 200 BCE (mostly after Buddha and Mahavira), and this has been called the "sutras period".[24][25] This period followed the more ancientChhandas period,Mantra period andBrahmana period.[26]
(The ancient) Indian pupil learnt thesesutras of grammar, philosophy or theology by the same mechanical method which fixes in our (modern era) minds the alphabet and the multiplication table.
— Max Müller, History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature[6]
Some of the earliest surviving specimens ofsutras of Hinduism are found in theAnupada Sutras andNidana Sutras.[27] The former distills theepistemic debate whetherSruti orSmriti or neither must be considered the more reliable source of knowledge,[28] while the latter distills the rules of musical meters forSamaveda chants and songs.[29]
A larger collection of ancient sutra literature in Hinduism corresponds to the six Vedangas, or six limbs of theVedas.[4] These are six subjects that said in theVedas to be necessary for complete mastery of the Vedas. The six subjects with their ownsutras were "pronunciation (Shiksha), meter (Chandas), grammar (Vyakarana), explanation of words (Nirukta), time keeping through astronomy (Jyotisha), and ceremonial rituals (Kalpa).[4] The first two, states Max Muller, were considered in the Vedic era to be necessary for reading the Veda, the second two for understanding it, and the last two for deploying the Vedic knowledge atyajnas (fire rituals).[4] Thesutras corresponding to these are embedded inside theBrahmana andAranyaka layers of the Vedas. Taittiriya Aranyaka, for example in Book 7, embeds sutras for accurate pronunciation after the terse phrases "On Letters", "On Accents", "On Quantity", "On Delivery", and "On Euphonic Laws".[30]
The fourth and often the last layer of philosophical, speculative text in the Vedas, the Upanishads, too have embedded sutras such as those found in theTaittiriya Upanishad.[30]
The compendium of ancient Vedic sutra literature that has survived, in full or fragments, includes theKalpa Sutras,Shulba Sutras,Srauta Sutras,Dharma Sutras,Grhya Sutras, and Smarta traditions .[31] Other fields for which ancient sutras are known include etymology, phonetics, and grammar.
Some examples of sutra texts in various schools ofHindu philosophy include
Brahma Sutras (or Vedanta Sutra) – a Sanskrit text, composed by Badarayana, likely sometime between 200 BCE to 200 CE.[34] The text contains 555sutras in four chapters that summarize the philosophical and spiritual ideas in theUpanishads.[35] It is one of the foundational texts of theVedānta school of Hindu philosophy.[35]
Yoga Sutras – contains 196 sutras onYoga including the eight limbs and meditation. TheYoga Sutras were compiled around 400 CE byPatanjali, taking materials about yoga from older traditions.[36] The text has been highly influential on Indian culture and spiritual traditions, and it is among the most translated ancient Indian text in the medieval era, having been translated into about forty Indian languages.[37]
Samkhya Sutra – is a collection of majorSanskrit texts of theSamkhya school of Hindu philosophy, including the sutras ondualism of Kapila.[38] It consists of six books with 526 sutras.
Sutra, without commentary: Soul is, for there is no proof that it is not. (Sutra 1, Book 6) This different from body, because of heterogeneousness. (Sutra 2, Book 6) Also because it is expressed by means of the sixth case. (Sutra 3, Book 6)
With Vijnanabhiksu's commentarybhasya filled in: Soul is, for there is no proof that it is not, since we are aware of "I think", because there is no evidence to defeat this. Therefore all that is to be done is to discriminate it from things in general. (Sutra 1, Book 6) This soul is different from the body because of heterogeneousness or complete difference between the two. (Sutra 2, Book 6) Also because it, the Soul, is expressed by means of the sixth case, for the learned express it by the possessive case in such examples as 'this is my body', 'this my understanding'; for the possessive case would be unaccountable if there were absolute non-difference, between the body or the like, and the Soul to which it is thus attributed as a possession. (Sutra 3, Book 6)
–Kapila inSamkhya Sutra, Translated by James Robert Ballantyne[39][40]
Vaisheshika Sutra – the foundational text of theVaisheshika school of Hinduism, dated to between the 4th century BCE and 1st century BCE, authored by Kanada.[41] With 370 sutras, it aphoristically teaches non-theisticnaturalism, epistemology, and its metaphysics. The first two sutras of the text expand as, "Now an explanation ofDharma; The means to prosperity and salvation is Dharma."[41][42]
Nyaya Sutras – an ancient text ofNyaya school of Hindu philosophy composed by Akṣapada Gautama, sometime between the 6th century BCE and 2nd century CE.[43][44] It is notable for focusing on knowledge and logic, and making no mention of Vedic rituals.[43] The text includes 528 aphoristic sutras, about rules of reason, logic, epistemology, and metaphysics.[45][46] These sutras are divided into five books, with two chapters in each book.[43] The first book is structured as a general introduction and table of contents of sixteen categories of knowledge.[43] Book two is aboutpramana (epistemology), book three is aboutprameya or the objects of knowledge, and the text discusses the nature of knowledge in remaining books.[43]
Reality is truth (prāma, foundation of correct knowledge), and what is true is so, irrespective of whether we know it is, or are aware of that truth.
– Akṣapada Gautama inNyaya Sutra, Translated by Jeaneane D Fowler[47]
Mimamsa Sutras – the foundational text of theMimamsa school of Hinduism, authored by Jaimini. It emphasizes the early part of the Vedas, i.e., rituals and religious works, as means to salvation.[48] The school emphasized precision in the selection of words, construction of sentences, developed rules for hermeneutics of language and any text, adopted and then refined principles of logic from theNyaya school, and developed extensive rules for epistemology.[48] An atheistic school that supported external Vedic sacrifices and rituals, its Mimamsa Sutra contains twelve chapters with nearly 2700sutras.[48]
Dharma-sutras – of Āpastamba, Gautama, Baudhāyana, and Vāsiṣṭha
Artha-sutras – the Niti Sutras of Chanakya and Somadeva are treatises on governance, law, economics, and politics. Versions of Chanakya Niti Sutras have been found in Sri Lanka and Myanmar.[49] The more comprehensive work of Chanakya, theArthashastra is itself composed in many parts, insutra style, with the first Sutra of the ancient book acknowledging that it is a compilation ofArtha-knowledge from previous scholars.[50]
Kama Sutra – an ancient Indian Sanskrit text on sexual and emotional fulfillment in life
In Buddhism, asutta orsutra constitutes a segment of the canonical literature. These early Buddhist sutras, unlike Hindu texts, are not aphoristic; rather, they tend to be quite lengthy. The Buddhist termsutta orsutra likely derives from Sanskritsūkta (su +ukta), meaning "well spoken," reflecting the belief that "all that was spoken by the Lord Buddha was well-spoken".[8] They embody the essence of sermons conveying "well-spoken" wisdom, akin to the Jain sutras.
In Chinese, these are known as 經 (pinyin:jīng). These teachings are organized as part of theTripiṭaka, specifically referred to as theSutta Pitaka. Numerous significant or influentialMahayana texts, such as thePlatform Sutra and theLotus Sutra, are termed sutras despite being attributed to much later authors.[citation needed]
The Sutta Pitaka, the second collection, brings together the Buddha's discourses spoken by him on various occasions during his active ministry of forty-five years.[52]
In the Jain tradition, sutras are an important genre of "fixed text", which used to be memorized.[53]
TheKalpa Sūtra is, for example, a Jain text that includes monastic rules,[54] as well as biographies of the JainTirthankaras.[55] Many sutras discuss all aspects of ascetic and lay life in Jainism. Various ancient sutras particularly from the early 1st millennium CE, for example, recommend devotionalbhakti as an essential Jain practice.[9]
The surviving scriptures of Jaina tradition, such as theAcaranga Sutra (Agamas), exist in sutra format,[10] as is theTattvartha Sutra, a Sanskrit text accepted by all four Jainism sects as the most authoritative philosophical text that completely summarizes the foundations of Jainism.[56][57]
^White, David Gordon (2014).The Yoga Sutra of Patanjali: A Biography. Princeton University Press. pp. 194–195.ISBN978-0-691-14377-4.
^abK. R. Norman (1997),A philological approach to Buddhism: the Bukkyo Dendo Kyokai Lectures 1994. (Buddhist Forum, Vol. v.)London: School of Oriental and African Studies,p. 104
^Paul Deussen, The System of the Vedanta: According to Badarayana's Brahma Sutras and Shankara's Commentary thereon, Translator: Charles Johnston,ISBN978-1-5191-1778-6, page 26
^NV Isaeva (1992), Shankara and Indian Philosophy, State University of New York Press,ISBN978-0-7914-1281-7, page 35 with footnote 30
^abJames Lochtefeld, Brahman, The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 1: A–M, Rosen Publishing,ISBN978-0-8239-3179-8, page 124
^Wujastyk, Dominik (2011),The Path to Liberation through Yogic Mindfulness in Early Ayurveda. In: David Gordon White (ed.), "Yoga in practice", Princeton University Press, p. 33
^White, David Gordon (2014).The Yoga Sutra of Patanjali: A Biography. Princeton University Press. p. xvi.ISBN978-0-691-14377-4.
^Max Muller et al. (1999 Reprint), Studies in Buddhism, Asian Educational Services,ISBN81-206-1226-4, page 10 with footnote
^abKlaus K. Klostermaier (2010), A Survey of Hinduism, Third Edition, State University of New York Press,ISBN978-0-7914-7082-4, pages 334–335
^Jeaneane Fowler (2002), Perspectives of Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism, Sussex Academic Press,ISBN978-1-898723-94-3, pages 98–107
^abcdeJeaneane Fowler (2002), Perspectives of Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism, Sussex Academic Press,ISBN978-1-898723-94-3, page 129
^B. K. Matilal "Perception. An Essay on Classical Indian Theories of Knowledge" (Oxford University Press, 1986), p. xiv.
^SC Vidyabhushan and NL Sinha (1990), The Nyâya Sûtras of Gotama, Motilal Banarsidass,ISBN978-81-208-0748-8
^Jeaneane Fowler (2002), Perspectives of Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism, Sussex Academic Press,ISBN978-1-898723-94-3, page 130
^abcJeaneane Fowler (2002), Perspectives of Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism, Sussex Academic Press,ISBN978-1-898723-94-3, pages 67–86
^SC Banerji (1989), A Companion to Sanskrit Literature, Motilal Banarsidass,ISBN978-81-208-0063-2, pages 586–587
^Thomas Trautman (2012), Arthashastra: The Science of Wealth, Penguin,ISBN978-0-670-08527-9, pages 16–17, 61, 64, 75
^Jacobi, Hermann (1884). Max Müller (ed.).Kalpa Sutra, Jain Sutras Part I. Oxford University Press.
^K. V. Mardia (1990).The Scientific Foundations of Jainism. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 103.ISBN978-81-208-0658-0.Quote: Thus, there is a vast literature available but it seems that Tattvartha Sutra of Umasvati can be regarded as the main philosophical text of the religion and is recognized as authoritative by all Jains."
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