Palm leaves of theSushruta Samhita orSahottara-Tantra fromNepal, stored atLos Angeles County Museum of Art. The text is dated 12th-13th century while the art is dated 18th-19th century.
TheSushruta Samhita (Sanskrit:सुश्रुतसंहिता,lit. 'Suśruta's Compendium',IAST:Suśrutasaṃhitā) is an ancientSanskrit text on medicine and one of the most important such treatises on this subject to survive from the ancient world. TheCompendium ofSuśruta is one of the foundational texts ofAyurveda (Indian traditional medicine originating from theAtharvaveda), alongside theCharaka-Saṃhitā,theBhela-Saṃhitā, and the medical portions of theBower Manuscript.[1][2] It is one of the two foundational Hindu texts on the medical profession that have survived from ancient India.[3]
TheSuśrutasaṃhitā is of great historical importance because it includes historically unique chapters describing surgical training, instruments and procedures.[2][4][page needed] The oldest surviving manuscript of theSuśrutasaṃhitā is MS Kathmandu KL 699, apalm-leaf manuscript preserved at theKaiser Library, Nepal that is datable to 878 AD.[5][6]
That person alone is fit to nurse or to attend the bedside of a patient, who is cool-headed and pleasant in his demeanor, does not speak ill of any body, is strong and attentive to the requirements of the sick, and strictly and indefatigably follows the instructions of the physician.
—Sushruta Samhita Book 1, Chapter XXXIV Translator: Bhishagratna[7]
The most detailed and extensive consideration of the date of theSuśrutasaṃhitā is that published by Meulenbeld in hisHistory of Indian Medical Literature (1999–2002). Meulenbeld states that theSuśrutasaṃhitā is likely a work that includes several historical layers, whose composition may have begun in the last centuries BCE and was completed in its presently surviving form by another author who redacted its first five sections and added the long, final section, the "Uttaratantra."[1] It is likely that theSuśruta-saṃhitā was known to the scholarDṛḍhabala [Wikidata] (fl. 300–500 CE), which gives the latest date for the version of the work that has survived into the modern era.[1]
InSuśrutasaṃhitā - A Scientific Synopsis, the historians of Indian science Ray, Gupta and Roy noted the following view, which is broadly the same as Meulenbeld's:[8]
"The Chronology Committee of the National Institute of Sciences of India (Proceedings, 1952),[9] was of the opinion that third to fourth centuries A. D. may be accepted as the date of the recension of the Suśruta Saṃhitā by Nāgārjuna, which formed the basis of Dallaṇa's commentary."
The above view remains the consensus amongst university scholars of the history of Indian medicine and Sanskrit literature.
The scholarRudolf Hoernle (1841–1918) proposed in 1907 that because the author of theŚatapathabrāhmaṇa, a Vedic text from the mid-first-millennium BCE, was aware ofSushruta's doctrines, Sushruta's work should be dated based on the composition date ofŚatapathabrāhmaṇa.[10] The composition date of the Brahmana was itself unclear, added Hoernle, but he estimated it to be about the sixth century BCE.[10] However, Hoernle's view was based on the unexamined assumption that the ideas about the human skeleton in theSuśrutasaṃhitā preceded those of theBrāhmaṇa. He seems never to have questioned this assumption.
Hoernle's date of 600 BCE for theSuśrutasaṃhitā was challenged by intervening scholarship over the last century. This scholarship was summarized by Meulenbeld in hisHistory of Indian Medical Literature.[11]
Central to the problem of chronology is the fact that theSuśrutasaṃhitā was the work of several hands. The internal tradition recorded in manuscript colophons and by medieval commentators makes clear that an old version of theSuśrutasaṃhitā consisted of sections 1-5, with the sixth part having been added by a later author. However, the oldest extant manuscripts include the sixth section, called "The Later Book" (Skt. Uttara-tantra). Manuscript colophons refer to the whole work as "The Suśrutasaṃhitā together with the Uttara-tantra," reinforcing the idea that they are a combined work. Thus, it does not make sense to speak of "the date of Suśruta." Like "Hippocrates," the name "Suśruta" refers to the work of many authors working over several centuries.
As mentioned above, scores of scholars have proposed hypotheses on the formation and dating of theSuśrutasaṃhitā, ranging from 2000 BCE to the sixth century CE. These views have been gathered and described by the medical historian Jan Meulenbeld.[12]
Sushruta orSuśruta (Sanskrit:सुश्रुत,IAST:Suśruta,lit.'well heard',[13] an adjective meaning "renowned"[14]) is named in the text as the author, who is presented in later manuscripts and printed editions a narrating the teaching of his guru, Divodāsa.[15][16] Early BuddhistJatakas mention a Divodāsa as a physician who lived and taught in ancient Kashi (Varanasi).[11] The earliest known mentions of the name Suśruta firmly associated with the tradition of theSuśrutasaṃhitā is in theBower Manuscript (4th or 5th century CE), where Suśruta is listed as one of the ten sages residing in the Himalayas.[17]
After a review of all past scholarship on the identity of Suśruta, Meulenbeld concluded that:
As is obvious from the foregoing, it is rather generally assumed that we owe the main part of the Suśrutasaṃhitā or an earlier version of it to a historical person called Suśruta. This assumption, however, is not based on uncontrovertible evidence and may be illusory. The text of the Suśrutasaṃhitā does not warrant that the one who composed it was a Suśruta. The structure oif the treatise shows without ambiguity that the author, who created a coherent whole out of earlier material, attributed the teachings incorporated in his work to Kāśirāja Divodāsa...[18]
The text has been called a Hindu text by many scholars.[19][20][21] The text discusses surgery with the same terminology found in more ancient Hindu texts,[22][23] mentions Hindu gods such asNarayana,Hari,Brahma,Rudra,Indra and others in its chapters,[24][25] refers to the scriptures of Hinduism namely theVedas,[26][27] and in some cases, recommends exercise, walking and "constant study of the Vedas" as part of the patient's treatment and recovery process.[28] The text also uses terminology ofVaiśeṣika,Samkhya and other schools ofHindu philosophy.[29][30][31]
TheSushruta Samhita andCaraka Samhita have religious ideas throughout, states Steven Engler, who then concludes "Vedic elements are too central to be discounted as marginal".[31] These ideas include the use of terms and same metaphors that are variously pervasive in Buddhist and Hindu scriptures – the Vedas, and the inclusion of theory ofKarma, self (Atman) andBrahman (metaphysical reality) along the lines of those found in ancient Hindu and Buddhist texts.[31] However, adds Engler, the text also includes another layer of ideas, where empirical rational ideas flourish in competition or cooperation with religious ideas.[31] Following Engler's study, contemporary scholars have abandoned the distinction "religious" vs. "empirico-rational" as no longer being a useful analytical distinction.
The text may have Buddhist influences, since a redactor namedNagarjuna has raised many historical questions, although he cannot have been the person of Mahayana Buddhism fame.[32] Zysk produced evidence that the medications and therapies mentioned in the Pāli Canon bear strong resemblances and are sometimes identical to those of theSuśrutasaṃhitā and theCarakasaṃhitā.[33]
In general, states Zysk, Buddhist medical texts are closer toSushruta than toCaraka,[34] and in his study suggests that theSushruta Samhita probably underwent a "Hinduization process" around the end of 1st millennium BCE and the early centuries of the common era after theHindu orthodox identity had formed.[35] Clifford states that the influence was probably mutual, with Buddhist medical practice in its ancient tradition prohibited outside of the Buddhist monastic order by a precedent set by Buddha, and Buddhist text praise Buddha instead of Hindu gods in their prelude.[36] The mutual influence between the medical traditions between the various Indian religions, the history of the layers of theSuśruta-saṃhitā remains unclear, a large and difficult research problem.[32]
Sushruta is reverentially held in Hindu tradition to be a descendant ofDhanvantari, the mythical god of medicine,[37] or as one who received the knowledge from a discourse from Dhanvantari in Varanasi.[15]
A page from the ancient medical text, Susruta Samhita.
One of the oldestpalm-leaf manuscripts ofSushruta Samhita has been discovered in Nepal. It is preserved at theKaiser Library, Nepal as manuscript KL–699. A microfilm copy of the MS was created by Nepal-German Manuscript Preservation Project (NGMCP C 80/7) and is stored in the National Archives, Kathmandu.[6] The partially damaged manuscript consists of 152 folios, written on both sides, with 6 to 8 lines in transitional Gupta script. The manuscript has been verifiably dated to have been completed by the scribe on Sunday, April 13, 878 CE (Manadeva Samvat 301).[6]
Much of the scholarship on theSuśruta-saṃhitā is based on editions of the text that were published during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. This includes the important edition by Vaidya Yādavaśarman Trivikramātmaja Ācārya that also includes the commentary of the scholar Dalhaṇa.[38]
The printed editions are based on the small subset of surviving manuscripts that was available in the major publishing centers of Bombay, Calcutta and elsewhere when the editions were being prepared – sometimes as few as three or four manuscripts. But these do not adequately represent the large number of manuscript versions of theSuśruta-saṃhitā that have survived into the modern era. Taken together, all printed versions of the Suśrutasaṃhitā are based on no more than ten percent of the more than 230 manuscripts of the work that exist today.[39]
The different parts or members of the body as mentioned before including the skin, cannot be correctly described by one who is not well versed in anatomy. Hence, any one desirous of acquiring a thorough knowledge of anatomy should prepare a dead body and carefully, observe, by dissecting it, and examine its different parts.
—Sushruta Samhita, Book 3, Chapter V Translators: Loukas et al[40]
The Sushruta Samhita is among the most important ancient medical treatises.[1] It is one of the foundational texts of the medical tradition in India, alongside theCaraka-Saṃhitā,the Bheḷa-Saṃhitā, and the medical portions of theBower Manuscript.[1][2]
TheSushruta Samhita was perhaps composed afterCharaka Samhita and, except for some topics and their emphasis, both discuss many similar subjects such as General Principles, Pathology, Diagnosis, Anatomy, Sensorial Prognosis, Therapeutics, Pharmaceutics and Toxicology.[41][42][1]
TheSushruta andCharaka texts differ in one major aspect, withSushruta Samhita providing more detailed descriptions of surgery, surgical instruments and surgical training. TheCharaka Samhita mentions surgery, but only briefly.
TheSushruta Samhita, in its extant form, is divided into 186 chapters and contains descriptions of 1,120 illnesses, 700 medicinal plants, 64 preparations from mineral sources and 57 preparations based on animal sources.[43]
TheSuśruta-Saṃhitā is divided into two parts: the first five books (Skt. Sthanas) are considered to be the oldest part of the text, and the "Later Section" (Skt.Uttaratantra) that was added by the author Nagarjuna.[44] The content of these chapters is diverse, some topics are covered in multiple chapters in different books, and a summary according to the Bhishagratna's translation is as follows:[45][46][47]
Classification of (Original) Samhita: Table of contents, synopsis of the text, skilful and unskilful physicians, how to study for medical practice, need for "constant practice to attain perfection"
Preliminary surgical measures: Types of surgical operations, collecting equipment and accessories, prophylactics, modes of incision, post surgical steps, dressing wounds, instructions to the patient after surgery, measures to remove pain
Seasons and their influence on health and medicine: effect of weather, change in weather, causes of epidemics, prophylactic measures, natural and unnatural seasons
Surgical appliances, their use and construction: names, dimensions, use and functions, excellence of each appliance, defect of each appliance, accessories
Surgical instruments, their use and construction: handling instruments, sharpening, edging, tempering, maintenance, when should each be used and not used
Qualifications and certification of a physician: effect of weather, change in weather, causes of epidemics, prophylactic measures, natural and unnatural seasons
Preparing Alkalis, their uses: how to prepare the solutions, external and internal uses, cauterization, potencies, defects, dangers, reaction, preventing abuse
Leeching: suitable and unsuitable patients, mode of vitiatingdhatu (blood), finding, collecting and keeping leeches, good leeches and bad leeches, post-treatment measures
Lymph chyle: menstrual blood and its nature, swellings, venesection, causes of excessive bleeding, causes of scanty bleeding, measures to be adopted in either
Ulcers: classification, preparing medicinal plasters, dressing, evils of not bandaging, benefits of bandaging, when not to bandage, lubricating bandage for faster healing
Reproductive health: classification of semen and menstrual fluid, disorders, treatment, sexual activity for conception, difficulty in conception, causes, description of fetus
Pregnancy: Theory ofSarira (body, matter),Atman (soul), theory on gender formation, signs of pregnancy, care of pregnant woman, fetal development, cravings, twin, time of delivery, care during labor
Human anatomy: Enumeration of limbs, body organs, their numbers, vessels, bones, joints,Sandhis, ligaments, muscles, differences between organs of men and women, reproductive organs
Marmas, vital organs: classification, numbering and location of organs, different theories on which organs are vital, symptoms associated with specific organs when injured
Nursing, care of pregnant women: needs from conception to parturition, regimen during gestation, diet, natal rites, lactation, infantile diseases, miscarriage and its treatment, management of pregnancy
Various topics onHygiene: tooth brushing, dental care, face care, hands and feet washing, bathing, exercise, healthy meal, rules on drinking water, benefits ofDahi (yoghurt), good sleep, effect of not taking care of body, improving strength, elixirs, rejuvenators, remedial agents, Soma, tonics, Sneha, Sveda, Emetics, Purgatives, effects of abusing or overdosing medicine and solutions, use of Dhuma (fumes) and Kavala (gargling) for relief from some symptoms.
Various topics onPoisons: Classification, description and treatment of animal poisons, snake bite, rat poisoning, scorpions, spiders, other insect bites
Eye disorders, injuries and infections: eye diseases, appendages, causes of eye diseases, symptoms, eyelid infections and their treatment, classification of eye lens problems and prognosis, need and protocols for eye surgery, eye injuries and their treatment
Fever, diarrhea, phthisis, gulma, heart disease, jaundice, hemorrhage, alcoholism, vomiting, asthma, cough: classification, symptoms, causes, prognosis, changes in diet as cure, use of drinks, milk and meat as medicine.
Rules of health: indications and importance of health, knowledge of foods, varying food intake with seasons, effective ways to administer medicines, proper time for taking food and medicines
Sushruta, states Tipton, asserts that a physician should invest the effort to prevent diseases as much as curative remedial procedures.[122] An important means for prevention, states Sushruta, is physical exercise and hygienic practices.[122] The text adds that excessive strenuous exercise can be injurious and make one more susceptible to diseases, cautioning against such excess.[123] Regular moderate exercise, suggests Sushruta, improves resistance to disease and physical decay.[122]Sushruta has written Shlokas on the prevention of diseases.
The Sushruta Samhita states, per Hoernle's translation, that "the professors of Ayurveda speak of three hundred and sixty bones, but books onShalya-Shastra (surgical science) know of only three hundred".[124] The text then lists the total of 300 as follows: 120 in the extremities (e.g. hands, legs), 117 in the pelvic area, sides, back, abdomen and breast, and 63 in the neck and upwards.[124] The text then explains how these subtotals were empirically verified.[125] The discussion shows that the Indian tradition nurtured diversity of thought, with Sushruta school reaching its own conclusions and differing from the Atreya-Caraka tradition.[125]
The osteological system of Sushruta, states Hoernle, follows the principle ofhomology, where the body and organs are viewed as self-mirroring and corresponding across various axes of symmetry.[126] The differences in the count of bones in the two schools is partly because Charaka Samhita includes thirty two teeth sockets in its count, and their difference of opinions on how and when to count a cartilage as bone (both count cartilages as bones, unlike current medical practice).[127][128]
Students are to practice surgical techniques on gourds and dead animals.
—Sushruta Samhita, Book 1, Chapter IX Translator: Engler[31]
The Sushruta Samhita is best known in non-specialist sources on medical history for its approach and discussions of surgery.[41] It is amongst the first medical treatises in history to suggest that a student of surgery should learn about human body and its organs by systematically examining a dead body.[129] A student should practice, states the text, on objects resembling the diseased or body part.[130] Incision studies, for example, are recommended onPushpaphala (squash,Cucurbita maxima),Alabu (bottle gourd,Lagenaria vulgaris),Trapusha (cucumber,Cucumis pubescens), leather bags filled with fluids and bladders of dead animals.[131]
The ancient text, state Menon and Haberman, describes haemorrhoidectomy, amputations, plastic, rhinoplastic, ophthalmic, lithotomic and obstetrical procedures.[41]
TheSushruta Samhita mentions various methods including sliding graft, rotation graft and pedicle graft.[132] Reconstruction of a nose (rhinoplasty) which has been cut off, using a flap of skin from the cheek is also described.[133] Labioplasty too has received attention in the samahita.[134]
The Sushruta Samhita, along with the Sanskrit medicine-related classics Atharvaveda and Charak Samhita, describe more than 700 medicinal herbs.[135] The descriptions include the herbs' taste, appearance, digestive effects, safety, efficacy, dosage, and benefits.[135]
Rhinoplasty, surgery to repair the flesh of the nose, is performed to achieve two results:
Some shastras (tools) and kartarika (scissors and forceps) mentioned inSushruta Samhita
To improve the breathing function of the nose
To improve the cosmetic appearance of the nose
Sushruta's treatise provides the first written record of a cheek flap rhinoplasty, a technique still used today to reconstruct a nose. The text mentions more than 15 methods to repair it. These include using a flap of skin from the cheek, which is akin to the most modern technique today.[136][137]
The nose in Indian society has remained a symbol of dignity and respect throughout antiquity. Rhinoplasty was an especially important development in India because of the long-standing tradition ofrhinotomy (amputation of the nose) as a form of punishment. Convicted criminals would often have their noses amputated to mark them as untrustworthy, but amputation was also frequently practiced on women accused of adultery – even if they were not proven guilty. Once branded in this fashion, an individual had to live with the stigma for the rest of his or her life. Reconstructive surgery, therefore, offered a hope of redemption and normalcy.
The text wastranslated to Arabic asKitab Shah Shun al-Hindi' in Arabic, also known asKitab i-Susurud, in Baghdad during the early 8th century at the instructions of a member of theBarmakid family of Baghdad.[138][139] Yahya ibn Barmak facilitated a major effort at collecting and translating Sanskrit texts such as Vagbhata'sAstangahrdaya Samhita, Ravigupta'sSiddhasara and Sushruta Samhita.[140] The Arabic translation reached Europe by the end of the medieval period.[141][142] There is disputed evidence that inRenaissance Italy, the Branca family ofSicily[141] andGasparo Tagliacozzi (Bologna) were familiar with the rhinoplastic techniques mentioned in theSushruta Samhita.[143][144][142]
The text was known to the Khmer king Yaśovarman I (fl. 889-900) ofCambodia. Suśruta was also known as a medical authority in Tibetan literature.[138]
The earliest surviving commentary on the whole text, known asNibandha-samgraha, was written byDalhana in ca. 1200 CE.
Earlier commentaries existed but have only been transmitted to modern times in fragmentary form. These include lost or partially-lost commentaries by Jejjaṭa (ca. 700 CE),[145] Gayadāsa (ca. 1000 CE),[146] and Cakrapāṇidatta (ca. 1025 CE).[147]
Commentaries continued to be written on the work into the nineteenth century, e.g., theSuśrutārthasandīpanī by Haranachandra written in the 19th century AD.
A number of Sushruta's contributions have been discussed in modern literature. Some of these includeHritshoola (heart pain), circulation of vital body fluids (such as blood (rakta dhatu) andlymph (rasa dhatu), Diabetes (Madhumeha), obesity, and hypertension.[43] Kearns & Nash (2008) state that the first mention ofleprosy is described inSushruta Samhita.[148][149] The text discusses kidney stones and its surgical removal.[150]
The first printed edition of the text was prepared byMadhusudan Gupta (2 vols, Calcutta 1835,1836). A partial English translation by U. C. Datta appeared in 1883. The first complete English translation of the Sushruta Samhita was by Kaviraj Kunjalal Bhishagratna, who published it in three volumes between 1907 and 1916 (reprinted 1963, 2006).[151][note 1]
An English translation of both theSushruta Samhita and Dalhana's commentary was published in three volumes by P. V. Sharma in 1999.[152] Scholars of Ayurveda generally consider this to be the most accurate and scholarly translation of the complete work to date.[citation needed]
^abBhishagratna translation includes parts of Dalhana commentary, and used modern medical terminology and Western words such as "egg" forsonita (menstrual blood), an approach that has led scholars to question parts of his translation.[48][49]
^Wendy Doniger (2014), On Hinduism, Oxford University Press,ISBN978-0199360079, page 79; Sarah Boslaugh (2007), Encyclopedia of Epidemiology, Volume 1, SAGE Publications,ISBN978-1412928168, page 547,Quote: "The Hindu text known as Sushruta Samhita is possibly the earliest effort to classify diseases and injuries"
^Wujastyk, Dominik; Birch, Jason; Klebanov, Andrey; Parameswaran, Madhu K.; Rimal, Madhusudan; Chakraborty, Deepro; Bhatt, Harshal; Lele, Vandana; Mehta, Paras (2023).On the Plastic Surgery of the Ears and Nose. Heidelberg Asian Studies Publishing.doi:10.11588/hasp.1203.
^abcKengo Harimoto (2011). "In search of the Oldest Nepalese Manuscript".Rivista degli Studi Orientali.84:85–88.
^Boslaugh 2007, p. 547, Quote: "The Hindu text known as Sushruta Samhita (600 AD) is possibly the earliest effort to classify diseases and injuries"..
^Schultheisz 1981, pp. 60–61, Quote: "(...) the Charaka Samhita and the Susruta Samhita, both being recensions of two ancient traditions of the Hindu medicine.".
^Loukas 2010, p. 646, Quote: Susruta's Samhita emphasized surgical matters, including the use of specific instruments and types of operations. It is in his work that one finds significant anatomical considerations of the ancient Hindu.".
^Raveenthiran, Venkatachalam (2011). "Knowledge of ancient Hindu surgeons on Hirschsprung disease: evidence from Sushruta Samhita of circa 1200-600 bc".Journal of Pediatric Surgery.46 (11):2204–2208.doi:10.1016/j.jpedsurg.2011.07.007.PMID22075360.
^Zysk, Kenneth G. (1991).Asceticism and healing in ancient India: medicine in the Buddhist monastery. New York: Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-505956-4.
^Martha Ann Selby (2005), Asian Medicine and Globalization (Editor: Joseph S. Alter), University of Pennsylvania Press,ISBN978-0812238662, page 124
^RP Das (1991), Medical Literature from India, Sri Lanka, and Tibet (Editors: Gerrit Jan Meulenbeld, I. Julia Leslie), BRILL Academic,ISBN978-9004095229, pages 25-26
^Melvin A. Shiffman, Alberto Di Gi.Advanced Aesthetic Rhinoplasty: Art, Science, and New Clinical Techniques. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 132.
^Sharma, Kumar.History BA (Programme) Semester II: Questions and Answers, University of Delhi. Pearson Education India. p. 147.
^Kenneth Zysk (2010), Medicine in the Veda: Religious Healing in the Veda, Motilal Banarsidass,ISBN978-8120814004, page 272 with footnote 36
^Sharma, Priya Vrata (2001).Suśruta-Saṃhitā, with English Translation of Text and Ḍalhaṇa's Commentary Along with Critical Notes. Haridas Ayurveda Series 9. Vol. 3 vols. Varanasi: Chowkhambha Visvabharati.OCLC42717448.
Rana, R. E.; Arora, B. S. (2002). "History of plastic surgery in India".Journal of Postgraduate Medicine.48 (1):76–8.PMID12082339.
Rây, Priyadaranjan; et al. (1980).Suśruta saṃhitā: a scientific synopsis. Indian National Science Academy.OCLC7952879.
Meulenbeld, Gerrit Jan (1999).A History of Indian Medical Literature. Groningen: Brill (all volumes, 1999-2002).ISBN978-9069801247.
Sharma, P. V. (1992).History of medicine in India, from antiquity to 1000 A.D. New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy.OCLC26881970.
Schultheisz, E. (1981).History of Physiology. Pergamon Press.ISBN978-0080273426.
Raveenthiran, Venkatachalam (2011). "Knowledge of ancient Hindu surgeons on Hirschsprung disease: evidence from Sushruta Samhita of circa 1200-600 bc".Journal of Pediatric Surgery.46 (11):2204–2208.doi:10.1016/j.jpedsurg.2011.07.007.PMID22075360.
Sutrasthana, Translated by Kaviraj Kunja Lal Bhishagratna
Nidanasthana, Translated by Kaviraj Kunja Lal Bhishagratna
Sharirasthana, Translated by Kaviraj Kunja Lal Bhishagratna
Cikitsasthana, Translated by Kaviraj Kunja Lal Bhishagratna
Kalpasthana, Translated by Kaviraj Kunja Lal Bhishagratna
Uttaratantra, Translated by Kaviraj Kunja Lal Bhishagratna
The Sushruta Project: The textual and cultural history of medicine in South Asia based on newly-discovered manuscript evidence. An academic research project at theUniversity of Alberta (2020-2024).
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