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Surveillance capitalism is a concept inpolitical economics which denotes the widespread collection andcommodification ofpersonal data by corporations. This phenomenon is distinct fromgovernment surveillance, although the two can be mutually reinforcing. The concept of surveillance capitalism, as described byShoshana Zuboff, is driven by aprofit-making incentive, and arose as advertising companies, led by Google'sAdWords, saw the possibilities of using personal data to target consumers more precisely.[1]
Increased data collection may have various benefits for individuals and society, such asself-optimization (thequantified self),[2] societal optimizations (e.g., bysmart cities) and optimized services (including variousweb applications). However, ascapitalism focuses on expanding the proportion of social life that is open todata collection anddata processing,[2] this can have significant implications for vulnerability and control of society, as well as forprivacy.
The economic pressures of capitalism are driving the intensification of online connection andmonitoring, with spaces of social life opening up to saturation by corporate actors, directed at making profits and/or regulating behavior. Personal smart phone data is available by corporate equipment which pretends to be cell telephone towers thus tracking and monitoring private persons in public spaces which is sold to governments or other companies.[3] Therefore, personal data points increase in value after the possibilities oftargeted advertising were known.[4] As a result, the increasing price of data has limited access to the purchase of personaldata points to the richest in society.[5]
Shoshana Zuboff writes that "analysing massive data sets began as a way to reduce uncertainty by discovering the probabilities of future patterns in the behavior of people and systems".[6] In 2014, Vincent Mosco referred to the marketing of information about customers and subscribers to advertisers assurveillance capitalism and made note of thesurveillance state alongside it.[7]Christian Fuchs found that the surveillance state fuses with surveillance capitalism.[8]
Similarly, Zuboff informs that the issue is further complicated by highly invisible collaborative arrangements with state security apparatuses. According to Trebor Scholz, companies recruit people as informants for this type of capitalism.[9] Zuboff contrasts themass production ofindustrial capitalism with surveillance capitalism, where the former was interdependent with its populations, who were its consumers and employees, and the latter preys on dependent populations, who are neither its consumers nor its employees and largely ignorant of its procedures.[10]
Their research shows that the capitalist addition to the analysis of massive amounts of data has taken its original purpose in an unexpected direction.[1]Surveillance has been changing power structures in the information economy, potentially shifting the balance of power further from nation-states and towards large corporations employing the surveillance capitalist logic.[11]
Zuboff notes that surveillance capitalism extends beyond the conventional institutional terrain of the private firm, accumulating not only surveillance assets and capital but also rights, and operating without meaningful mechanisms of consent.[10] In other words, analysing massive data sets was at some point not only executed by the state apparatuses but also companies. Zuboff claims that bothGoogle andFacebook have invented surveillance capitalism and translated it into "a new logic of accumulation".[1][12][13]
This mutation resulted in both companies collecting very large numbers of data points about their users, with the core purpose of making a profit. By selling these data points to external users (particularly advertisers), it has become an economic mechanism. The combination of the analysis of massive data sets and the use of these data sets as a market mechanism has shaped the concept of surveillance capitalism. Surveillance capitalism has been heralded as the successor toneoliberalism.[14][15]
Oliver Stone, creator of the filmSnowden, pointed to thelocation-based gamePokémon Go as the "latest sign of the emerging phenomenon and demonstration of surveillance capitalism". Stone criticized that the location of its users was used not only for game purposes, but also to retrieve more information about its players. Bytracking users' locations, the game collected far more information than just users' names and locations: "it can access the contents of your USB storage, your accounts, photographs, network connections, and phone activities, and can even activate your phone, when it is in standby mode". This data can then be analysed and commodified by companies such as Google (which significantly invested in the game's development) to improve the effectiveness oftargeted advertisement.[16][17]
Another aspect of surveillance capitalism is its influence onpolitical campaigning. Personal data retrieved bydata miners can enable various companies (most notoriouslyCambridge Analytica) to improve the targeting ofpolitical advertising, a step beyond the commercial aims of previous surveillance capitalist operations. In this way, it is possible that political parties will be able to produce far more targeted political advertising to maximise its impact on voters. However,Cory Doctorow writes that the misuse of these data sets "will lead us towards totalitarianism".[18][better source needed] This may resemble acorporatocracy, andJoseph Turow writes that "the centrality ofcorporate power is a direct reality at the very heart of thedigital age".[2][19]: 17
The terminology "surveillance capitalism" was popularized by Harvard Professor Shoshana Zuboff.[20]: 107 In Zuboff's theory, surveillance capitalism is a novel market form and a specific logic ofcapitalist accumulation. In her 2014 essayA Digital Declaration: Big Data as Surveillance Capitalism, she characterized it as a "radically disembedded and extractive variant of information capitalism" based on thecommodification of "reality" and its transformation into behavioral data for analysis and sales.[21][22][23][24]
In a subsequent article in 2015, Zuboff analyzed the societal implications of thismutation of capitalism. She distinguished between "surveillance assets", "surveillance capital", and "surveillance capitalism" and their dependence on a global architecture of computer mediation that she calls "Big Other", a distributed and largely uncontested new expression of power that constitutes hidden mechanisms of extraction, commodification, and control that threatens core values such asfreedom,democracy, andprivacy.[25][2]
According to Zuboff, surveillance capitalism was pioneered by Google and later Facebook, just asmass-production and managerial capitalism were pioneered byFord andGeneral Motors a century earlier, and has now become the dominant form of information capitalism.[10] Zuboff emphasizes that behavioral changes enabled by artificial intelligence have become aligned with the financial goals of American internet companies such as Google, Facebook, and Amazon.[20]: 107
In herOxford University lecture published in 2016, Zuboff identified the mechanisms and practices of surveillance capitalism, including the production of "prediction products" for sale in new "behavioral futures markets." She introduced the concept "dispossession bysurveillance", arguing that it challenges the psychological and political bases ofself-determination by concentrating rights in the surveillance regime. This is described as a "coup from above."[26]
Zuboff's bookThe Age of Surveillance Capitalism[27] is a detailed examination of the unprecedented power of surveillance capitalism and the quest by powerful corporations to predict and control human behavior.[27] Zuboff identifies four key features in the logic of surveillance capitalism and explicitly follows the four key features identified by Google's chief economist,Hal Varian:[28]
Zuboff compares demanding privacy from surveillance capitalists or lobbying for an end to commercial surveillance on the Internet to askingHenry Ford to make eachModel T by hand and states that such demands are existential threats that violate the basic mechanisms of the entity's survival.[10]
Zuboff warns that principles of self-determination might be forfeited due to "ignorance, learned helplessness, inattention, inconvenience, habituation, or drift" and states that "we tend to rely on mental models, vocabularies, and tools distilled from past catastrophes," referring to the twentieth century'stotalitarian nightmares or themonopolistic predations ofGilded Age capitalism, with countermeasures that have been developed to fight those earlier threats not being sufficient or even appropriate to meet the novel challenges.[10]
She also poses the question: "will we be the masters of information, or will we be its slaves?" and states that "if the digital future is to be our home, then it is we who must make it so".[29]
In her book, Zuboff discusses the differences between industrial capitalism and surveillance capitalism. Zuboff writes that as industrial capitalism exploited nature, surveillance capitalism exploits human nature.[30]
The term "surveillance capitalism" has also been used bypolitical economistsJohn Bellamy Foster andRobert W. McChesney, although with a different meaning. In an article published inMonthly Review in 2014, they apply it to describe the manifestation of the "insatiable need for data" offinancialization, which they explain is "the long-term growth speculation on financial assets relative to GDP" introduced in the United States by industry and government in the 1980s that evolved out of themilitary-industrial complex and the advertising industry.[31]
Numerous organizations have been struggling forfree speech andprivacy rights in the new surveillance capitalism[32] and various national governments have enactedprivacy laws. It is also conceivable that new capabilities and uses for mass-surveillance require structural changes towards a new system to create accountability and prevent misuse.[33] Government attention towards the dangers of surveillance capitalism especially increased after the exposure of theFacebook-Cambridge Analytica data scandal that occurred in early 2018.[5] In response to the misuse of mass-surveillance multiple states have taken preventive measures. TheEuropean Union, for example, has reacted to these events and restricted its rules and regulations on misusing big data.[34] Surveillance-Capitalism has become a lot harder under these rules, known as theGeneral Data Protection Regulations.[34] However, implementing preventive measures against misuse of mass-surveillance is hard for many countries as it requires structural change of the system.[35]
Bruce Sterling's 2014 lecture atStrelka Institute "The epic struggle of theinternet of things"[36] explained how consumer products could become surveillance objects that track people's everyday life. In his talk, Sterling highlights the alliances between multinational corporations who develop Internet of Things-based surveillance systems which feeds surveillance capitalism.[36][37][38]
In 2015, Tega Brain and Surya Mattu's satirical artworkUnfit Bits encourages users to subvert fitness data collected byFitbits. They suggested ways to fake datasets by attaching the device, for example to a metronome or on a bicycle wheel.[39][40] In 2018, Brain created a project withSam Lavigne calledNew Organs which collect people's stories of being monitored online and offline.[41][42]
The 2019 documentary filmThe Great Hack tells the story of how a company named Cambridge Analytica used Facebook to manipulate the2016 U.S. presidential election. Extensive profiling of users and news feeds that are ordered by black box algorithms were presented as the main source of the problem, which is also mentioned in Zuboff's book.[43] The usage of personal data to subject individuals to categorization and potentially politically influence individuals highlights how individuals can become voiceless in the face of data misusage. This highlights the crucial role surveillance capitalism can have on social injustice as it can affect all aspects of life.[44]
