"Master Sun" and "Sun Zi" redirect here. For the Three Kingdoms period state, seeEastern Wu. For other masters surnamed Sun, seeSun (surname).For other people named Sun Tzu, seeSun Tzu (disambiguation).
Sun Tzu is revered inChinese and East Asian culture as a legendary historical and military figure; however, his historical existence is uncertain. TheHan dynasty historianSima Qian and other traditional Chinese historians placed him as a minister toKing Helü of Wu and dated his lifetime to 544–496 BC. The nameSun Tzu—by which he is more popularly known—is anhonorific which means "MasterSun". His birth name was said to beSun Wu (traditional Chinese:孫武;simplified Chinese:孙武) and he is posthumously known by hiscourtesy nameChangqing (Chinese:長卿).[2] Traditional accounts state that the general's descendantSun Bin wrote a treatise on military tactics, also titledThe Art of War. Since both Sun Wu and Sun Bin were referred to as "Sun Tzu" in classical Chinese texts, some historians thought them identical, prior to the rediscovery of Sun Bin's treatise in 1972.
Situation during theBattle of Boju, whichSima Qian credits Sun Tzu with having participated in.
The earliest account of Sun Tzu's life is a short biography written around 97 BC bySima Qian as part of hisShiji (Records of the Grand Historian).[3] Sima Qian states that Sun Tzu was born inQi near the end of theSpring and Autumn period (776–471 BC), and that his courtesy name was "Wu." The rest of the biography consists of an account of howKingHelü ofWu, having heard of Sun Wu'sArt of War, summoned him to the palace and asked him to demonstrate his ability to train soldiers by training the king'sharem of 180concubines into soldiers.
Sun Tzu was said to have divided them into two companies, appointing the two concubines most favored by the king as the company commanders, and proceeded to give them orders, which they ignored, instead breaking out into laughter. Over the king's protestations, Sun Tzu then had the two concubines executed, at which the rest of the "soldiers" began to behave at once, and the king appointed Sun Wu as a general. He went on to lead the state of Wu to victory against the much larger state ofChu during theBattle of Boju in 506 BC.[3] Later accounts also associate Sun Tzu withWu Zixu, who was credited with the authorship of theWuzi, another ancient Chinese military text. Zixu was said to have been a refugee from Chu, and he introduced Sun Wu to King Helu.[4]
Beginning in the 12th century (during theSong dynasty), several Chinese scholars began to doubt the historical existence of Sun Tzu.[5] During theSong dynasty,Ye Shi (1150–1223) noticed that theZuo Zhuan, which mentions most of the notable figures from the Spring and Autumn period, does not mention Sun Tzu at all despite the fact that Sima Qian had claimed in theRecords of the Grand Historian that Sun Tzu had proved on the battlefield that his theories were effective at theBattle of Boju. TheZuo Zhuan, which was written centuries earlier than theRecords of the Grand Historian and provides a much more detailed account of the Battle of Boju, does not mention Sun Tzu at all.[6][7]
The name "Sun Wu" (孫武) does not appear in any text prior to theRecords of the Grand Historian,[8] and may have been an invented descriptivecognomen meaning "the fugitive warrior" – the surname "Sun" can be glossed as the related term "fugitive" (xùn遜), while "Wu" is the ancient Chinese virtue of "martial, valiant" (wǔ武), or aJianghuai dialectal synonym of士;shì "knight",[9] which corresponds to Sunzi's role as the hero'sdoppelgänger in the story ofWu Zixu.[10]
Furthermore, the earliest parts ofThe Art of War, the work traditionally credited to Sun Tzu, probably dates to at least a century after him.[1] Anachronisms inThe Art of War include terms, technology (such as anachronisticcrossbows), philosophical ideas, events, and military techniques that should not have been available to Sun Wu.[11][12] Additionally, there are no records of professional generals during theSpring and Autumn period; these are only extant from theWarring States period, so there is doubt as to Sun Tzu's rank and generalship.[12] This caused much confusion as to whenThe Art of War was actually written; since the 12th century, most scholars from theSong andQing Dynasty along with modern Chinese, Japanese and Western scholars followYe Shi in assigning the text to the beginning of theWarring States period.[5] This later dating has been bolstered by the discovery of the text on bamboo slips accidentally unearthed by construction workers atYinque Shan inShandong in 1972,[13][14][15] which had been sealed between 134 and 118 BC.[16] The content of the earlier text is about one-third of the chapters of the modernThe Art of War, and their texts match very closely.[17]
Another text discovered in the same collection wasSun Bin'sMilitary Methods,[15] a previously lost work that had been attributed to one of Sun Wu's descendants by Han dynasty bibliographies. Due to its close relationship with theArt of War,Military Methods provides important context on the body of military thought in Chinese late antiquity.[18] In the early 20th century, the Chinese writer and reformerLiang Qichao had theorized that the text of theArt of War was actually written in the 4th century BC by this purported descendant of Sun Tzu.[5] Although this hypothesis is no longer tenable, the Sun Bin text's material overlaps with much of the "Sun Tzu" text, and the two may be "a single, continuously developing intellectual tradition united under the Sun name".[19] Unlike Sun Wu, Sun Bin appears to have been an actual person who was a genuine authority on military matters and may have been the inspiration for the creation of the historical figure "Sun Tzu" through a form ofeuhemerism.[10] This discovery also demonstrated that much of the historical confusion about anecdotes attributed to Sun Tzu could have been due to the fact that there were two authors that could have been referred to as "Master Sun."[16][10]
The environment that was fostered was marked by theWarring States period (475-221 BC). The Warring States period was marked by military conflicts and conquests, as well as political instability. This would then foster the development ofphilosophical and strategic texts likeThe Art of War.
The Art of War, traditionally ascribed to Sun Tzu, is a Classical Chinese text dating from theWarring States period. The work is composed of 13 chapters, each of which is devoted to a different set of skills orarts related to warfare and how they apply tomilitary strategy andtactics. The book further outlines theories of battle, but it also advocates diplomacy and the cultivation of relationships with other nations as essential to the health of a state.[20]
In addition,Taoist rhetoric is a component incorporated into theArt of War. According to Steven C. Combs in "Sun-zi and theArt of War: The Rhetoric of Parsimony",[21] warfare is "used as a metaphor for rhetoric, and that both are philosophically based arts."[21] Combs writes: "Warfare is analogous to persuasion, as a battle for hearts and minds."[21] Combs compares Taoist andAristotelian rhetoric, notably for the differences in persuasion. Taoist rhetoric inThe Art of War is described as "peaceful and passive, favoring silence over speech".[21] Frugal behavior, which is emphasized extensively inThe Art of War as avoiding confrontation and being spiritual in nature, shapes basic principles in Taoism.[22]
Sun Tzu'sArt of War has influenced many notable figures and is accepted as amasterpiece on strategy. It has been frequently cited and by generals and theorists since it was first published, translated, and distributed internationally.[20]
The Art of War was one of the most widely read military treatises in the subsequentWarring States period, a time of constant war among seven ancient Chinese states—Zhao,Qi,Qin,Chu,Han,Wei, andYan—who fought to control the vast expanse of fertile territory in Eastern China.[20] For almost 1,500 years, it was the lead text in an anthology that was formalized as theSeven Military Classics byEmperor Shenzong of Song in 1080.The Art of War remains the most influential strategy text in East Asian warfare.[23]
The Art of War appears throughout the bibliographical catalogs of the Chinese dynastic histories, but listings of its divisions and size varied widely.[5] The strategist and warlordCao Cao in the early 3rd century of the Common Era authored the earliest known commentary to theArt of War.[5] Cao's preface makes clear that he edited the text and removed certain passages, but the extent of his changes was unclear historically.[5] In the 12th century,Ji Tianbao compiled a collection of commentaries onThe Art of War which included Cao Cao's commentary along with several later ones that are frequently cited, includingMeng Shi (502-557),Li Quan (c. 750),Jia Lin (c. late 8th c.),Du You (735-812),Du Mu (803-852), Chen Hao (c.Tang dynasty),Mei Yaochen (1002 - 1060), Wang Xi (c. 1082),He Yanxi (c. late 11th c.), and Zhang Yu (c.Southern Song dynasty).[24] Although most of these later commentaries have little value forphilology or historical analysis of the original text, they attest to the continued interest in the text throughout Chinese history.[24]
The book was translated into French and published in 1772 by the French priestJesuitJean Joseph Marie Amiot; it was re-published in 1782. A partial translation into English was attempted by British officer Everard Ferguson Calthrop in 1905 under the titleThe Book of War. The first annotated English translation was completed and published byLionel Giles in 1910.[26]
In the twentieth century, military and political leaders such as the Chinese communist revolutionaryMao Zedong and Vietnamese generalVõ Nguyên Giáp are cited along with American military generalsDouglas MacArthur andNorman Schwarzkopf Jr. as having drawn inspiration from the book.[27]Mao Zedong partially credited his 1949 victory overChiang Kai-shek and theKuomintang toThe Art of War. The work strongly influenced writings about warfare in Mao'sLittle Red Book, which further influenced communist insurgencies around the world.[20]Ho Chi Minh translated the work for his Vietnamese officers to study. His generalVõ Nguyên Giáp was likewise an avid student and practitioner of Sun Tzu's ideas.[28][29][30]
InSun Tzu and the Art of Modern Warfare, Mark McNeilly writes that a modern interpretation of Sun and his importance throughout Chinese history is critical in understanding China's push to become a superpower in the twenty-first century. Modern Chinese scholars explicitly rely on historical strategy andThe Art of War in developing their theories, seeing a direct relationship between their modern struggles and those of China in Sun Tzu's time. Sun Tzu's teachings and are used regularly in developing the strategies of the Chinese state and its leaders.[20]
Some admirers of Sun Tzu's work claim that it has relevance in competitive endeavors across the modern world beyond military strategy and warfare, including espionage, culture, governance, business, and sports.[31][32][33][34][35]
Sun Tzu has been mentioned often in popular American culture. For example, in the 1987 filmWall Street, the protagonistGordon Gekko frequently cites passages fromThe Art of War as guiding principles for his aggressive trading techniques.[36]
^Xu Shen's annotation:「武士也；江淮間謂士曰武。」 onLiu An (compiler),Huainanzi (淮南子), "Survey Obscurities" (覽㝠訓);Siku Quanshu version. Main text:「夫死生同域，不可脅陵， 勇武一人，為三軍雄。」; English translation from John S. Major, Sarah A. Queen, Andrew Seth Meyer, and Harold D. Roth (transl.) (2010)The Huainanzi: A Guide to the Theory and Practice of Government in Early Han China. New York: Columbia University Press, 2010. p. 215. quote: "One for whom death and life are the same territory, who cannot be threatened, such a single bravewarrior is the hero of the Three Armies."
^Galvany, Albert (October 2011). "Philosophy, biography, and Anecdote: On the Portrait of Sun Wu".Philosophy East and West.61 (4):630–646.doi:10.1353/pew.2011.0059.S2CID171035936.
Gawlikowski, Krzysztof;Loewe, Michael (1993). "Sun tzu ping fa 孫子兵法". In Loewe, Michael (ed.).Early Chinese Texts: A Bibliographical Guide. Berkeley: Society for the Study of Early China; Institute of East Asian Studies, University of California, Berkeley. pp. 446–455.ISBN978-1-55729-043-4.
McNeilly, Mark R. (2001),Sun Tzu and the Art of Modern Warfare, Oxford University Press,ISBN978-0-19-513340-0.
Smith, Kidder (1999). "The Military Texts: TheSunzi". Inde Bary, Wm. Theodore (ed.).Sources of Chinese Tradition: From Earliest Times to 1600, Volume 1 (2nd ed.). New York: Columbia University Press. pp. 213–224.ISBN978-0-231-10938-3.
Tung, R. L. (2001), "Strategic Management Thought in East Asia", in Warner, Malcolm (ed.),Comparative Management:Critical Perspectives on Business and Management, vol. 3, Routledge.
Ames, Roger T. (1993).Sun-tzu: The Art of Warfare: The First English Translation Incorporating the Recently Discovered Yin-chʻüeh-shan Texts. New York: Ballantine Books.ISBN978-0-345-36239-1.
