ASun-synchronous orbit (SSO), also called aheliosynchronous orbit,[1] is a nearlypolar orbit around a planet, in which the satellite passes over any given point of the planet's surface at the same localmean solar time.[2][3] More technically, it is an orbit arranged so that itprecesses through one complete revolution each year, so it always maintains the same relationship with the Sun.
A Sun-synchronous orbit is useful forimaging,reconnaissance, andweather satellites,[4] because every time that the satellite is overhead, the surfaceillumination angle on the planet underneath it is nearly the same. This consistent lighting is a useful characteristic forsatellites that image the Earth's surface in visible orinfrared wavelengths, such as weather and spy satellites, and for other remote-sensing satellites, such as those carrying ocean and atmospheric remote-sensing instruments that require sunlight. For example, a satellite in Sun-synchronous orbit might ascend across the equator twelve times a day, each time at approximately 15:00 mean local time.
Special cases of the Sun-synchronous orbit are thenoon/midnight orbit, where the local mean solar time of passage for equatorial latitudes is around noon or midnight, and thedawn/dusk orbit, where the local mean solar time of passage for equatorial latitudes is around sunrise or sunset, so that the satellite rides theterminator between day and night. Riding the terminator is useful for active radar satellites, as the satellites' solar panels can always see the Sun, without being shadowed by the Earth. It is also useful for some satellites with passive instruments that need to limit the Sun's influence on the measurements, as it is possible to always point the instruments towards the night side of the Earth. The dawn/dusk orbit has been used for solar-observingscientific satellites such asTRACE,Hinode andPROBA-2, affording them a nearly continuous view of the Sun.
A Sun-synchronous orbit is achieved by having theosculating orbital planeprecess (rotate) approximately one degree eastward each day with respect to thecelestial sphere to keep pace with the Earth's movement around theSun.[5] This precession is achieved by tuning the inclination to the altitude of the orbit (seeTechnical details) such that Earth'sequatorial bulge, which perturbs inclined orbits, causes the orbital plane of the spacecraft to precess with the desired rate. The plane of the orbit is not fixed in space relative to the distant stars, but rotates slowly about the Earth's axis.
Typical Sun-synchronous orbits around Earth are about 600–800 km (370–500 mi) in altitude, with periods in the 96–100-minute range, and inclinations of around 98°. This is slightlyretrograde compared to the direction of Earth's rotation: 0° represents an equatorial orbit, and 90° represents a polar orbit.[5]
Sun-synchronous orbits are possible around otheroblate planets, such asMars. A satellite orbiting a planet such asVenus that is almost spherical will need an outside push to maintain a Sun-synchronous orbit.
The angularprecession per orbit for an Earth orbiting satellite is approximately given by
where
An orbit will be Sun-synchronous when the precession rateρ =dΩ/dt equals the mean motion of the Earth about the SunnE, which is 360° persidereal year (1.99096871×10−7 rad/s), so we must setnE =ΔΩE/TE =ρ =ΔΩ/T, whereTE is the Earth orbital period, whileT is the period of the spacecraft around the Earth.
As the orbital period of a spacecraft is
wherea is thesemi-major axis of the orbit, andμ is thestandard gravitational parameter of the planet (398600.440 km3/s2 for Earth); asp ≈a for a circular or almost circular orbit, it follows that
or whenρ is 360° per year,
As an example, witha =7200 km, i.e., for an altitudea −RE ≈800 km of the spacecraft over Earth's surface, this formula gives a Sun-synchronous inclination of 98.7°.
Note that according to this approximationcosi equals −1 when the semi-major axis equals12352 km, which means that only lower orbits can be Sun-synchronous. The period can be in the range from 88 minutes for a very low orbit (a =6554 km,i = 96°) to 3.8 hours (a =12352 km, but this orbit would be equatorial, withi = 180°). A period longer than 3.8 hours may be possible by using an eccentric orbit withp <12352 km buta >12352 km.
If one wants a satellite to fly over some given spot on Earth every day at the same hour, the satellite must complete a whole number of orbits per day. Assuming a circular orbit, this comes down to between 7 and 16 orbits per day, as doing less than 7 orbits would require an altitude above the maximum for a Sun-synchronous orbit, and doing more than 16 would require an orbit inside the Earth's atmosphere or surface. The resulting valid orbits are shown in the following table. (The table has been calculated assuming the periods given. The orbital period that should be used is actually slightly longer. For instance, a retrograde equatorial orbit that passes over the same spot after 24 hours has a true period about365/364 ≈ 1.0027 times longer than the time between overpasses. For non-equatorial orbits the factor is closer to 1.)
| Orbits per day | Period (h) | Altitude (km) | Maximal latitude | Inclin- ation | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 16 | 1+1/2 | = 1:30 | 274 | 83.4° | 96.6° |
| 15 | 1+3/5 | = 1:36 | 567 | 82.3° | 97.7° |
| 14 | 1+5/7 | ≈ 1:43 | 894 | 81.0° | 99.0° |
| 13 | 1+11/13 | ≈ 1:51 | 1262 | 79.3° | 100.7° |
| 12 | 2 | 1681 | 77.0° | 103.0° | |
| 11 | 2+2/11 | ≈ 2:11 | 2162 | 74.0° | 106.0° |
| 10 | 2+2/5 | = 2:24 | 2722 | 69.9° | 110.1° |
| 9 | 2+2/3 | = 2:40 | 3385 | 64.0° | 116.0° |
| 8 | 3 | 4182 | 54.7° | 125.3° | |
| 7 | 3+3/7 | ≈ 3:26 | 5165 | 37.9° | 142.1° |
When one says that a Sun-synchronous orbit goes over a spot on the Earth at the samelocal time each time, this refers tomean solar time, not toapparent solar time. The Sun will not be in exactly the same position in the sky during the course of the year (seeEquation of time andAnalemma).
Sun-synchronous orbits are mostly selected forEarth observation satellites, with an altitude typically between 600 and1000 km over the Earth surface. Even if an orbit remains Sun-synchronous, however, other orbital parameters such asargument of periapsis and theorbital eccentricity evolve, due to higher-order perturbations in the Earth's gravitational field, the pressure of sunlight, and other causes. Earth observation satellites, in particular, prefer orbits with constant altitude when passing over the same spot. Careful selection of eccentricity and location of perigee reveals specific combinations where the rate of change of perturbations are minimized, and hence the orbit is relatively stable – afrozen orbit, where the motion of position of the periapsis is stable.[6] TheERS-1, ERS-2 andEnvisat ofEuropean Space Agency, as well as theMetOp spacecraft ofEUMETSAT andRADARSAT-2 of theCanadian Space Agency, are all operated in such Sun-synchronous frozen orbits.[7]
