Sukkot,[a] also known as theFeast of Tabernacles orFeast of Booths, is aTorah-commandedJewish holiday celebrated for seven days, beginning on the 15th day of the month ofTishrei. It is one of theThree Pilgrimage Festivals on whichIsraelites were commanded to make a pilgrimage to theTemple in Jerusalem. Biblically an autumnharvest festival and a commemoration ofthe Exodus from Egypt, Sukkot's modern observance is characterized by festive meals in asukkah, a temporary wood-covered hut, and the taking of thefour species.
The names used in the Torah are "Festival of Ingathering" (or "Harvest Festival",Hebrew:חַג הָאָסִיף,romanized: ḥag hāʾāsif)[3] and "Festival of Booths" (Hebrew:חג הסכות,romanized: Ḥag hasSukkōṯ).[4][3] This corresponds to the double significance of Sukkot. The one mentioned in theBook of Exodus is agricultural in nature—"Festival of Ingathering at the year's end" (Exodus 34:22)—and marks the end of the harvest time and thus of the agricultural year in theLand of Israel. The more elaborate religious significance from theBook of Leviticus is that of commemoratingthe Exodus and the dependence of theIsraelites on the will of God (Leviticus 23:42–43).
In the Torah's description of the holiday, the idea of welcoming all guests and extending hospitality is intrinsic to the celebration. Actual and symbolic "guests" (Aramaic:ushpizin) are invited to participate by visiting the sukkah. Specifically, according to theZohar, seven "forefathers" of the Jewish people are to be welcomed during the seven days of the festival, in this order: Day 1: Abraham; Day 2: Isaac; Day 3: Jacob; Day 4: Moses; Day 5: Aaron; Day 6: Joseph; Day 7: David.[5]
The holiday lasts seven days. The first day (and second day in thediaspora) is aShabbat-likeholiday whenwork is forbidden. This is followed by intermediate days calledChol HaMoed, during which certain work is permitted. The festival is closed with another Shabbat-like holiday calledShemini Atzeret (one day in the Land of Israel, two days in the diaspora, where the second day is calledSimchat Torah).
The Hebrew wordsukkoṯ is the plural ofsukkah ('booth' or 'tabernacle') which is a walled structure covered withs'chach (plant material, such as overgrowth or palm leaves). A sukkah is the name of the temporary dwelling in which farmers would live during harvesting, reinforcing agricultural significance of the holiday introduced in the Book of Exodus. As stated inLeviticus, it is also reminiscent of the type of fragile dwellings in which the Israelites dwelled during their 40 years of travel in the desert after the Exodus from slavery inEgypt. Throughout the holiday, meals are eaten inside the sukkah and many people sleep there as well.
On each day of the holiday it is amitzvah, or commandment, to 'dwell' in the sukkah and to perform a shaking ceremony with alulav (apalm frond, then bound withmyrtle andwillow), and anetrog (the fruit of acitron tree) (collectively known as thefour species). The fragile shelter, the 'now-three-item' lulav, the etrog, the revivedSimchat Beit HaShoeivah celebration's focus on water and rainfall and the holiday's harvest festival roots draw attention to people's dependence on the natural environment.
External aerial view ofsukkah booths where Jewish families eat their meals and sleep throughout the Sukkot holiday
The traditional origins of the holiday dates back to the Israelites' time in the desert, where they were told to commemorate God's protection and the harvest season that would happen when they would arrive in the land of Israel by building huts and taking the Four Species.
Additionally, Sukkot shares similarities with older Canaanite new-year/harvest festivals, which included a seven-day celebration with sacrifices reminiscent of those inNum. 29:13–38 and "dwellings of branches", as well as processions with branches. The earliest references in the Bible (Ex. 23:16 andEx. 34:22) make no mention of Sukkot, instead referring to it as "the festival of ingathering (hag ha'asif) at the end of the year, when you gather in the results of your work from the field," suggesting an agricultural origin. (The Hebrew termasif is also mentioned in theGezer calendar as a two-month period in the autumn.)
The booths aspect of the festival may come from the shelters that were built in the fields by those involved in the harvesting process. Alternatively, it may come from the booths which pilgrims would stay in when they came in for the festivities at the cultic sanctuaries.[6][7][8][9][10] Finally,Lev. 23:40 talks about the taking of various branches (and a fruit), this too is characteristic of ancient agricultural festivals, which frequently included processions with branches.[8]: 17
Later, the festival was historicized by symbolic connection with the desert sojourn ofexodus (Lev. 23:42–43).[7] The narratives of the exodus trek do not describe the Israelites building booths,[11][8]: 18 but they indicate that most of the trek was spent encamped at oases rather than traveling, and "sukkot" roofed with palm branches were a popular and convenient form of housing at such Sinai desert oases.[12]
Sukkot is a seven-day festival. Inside theLand of Israel, the first day is celebrated as a full festival with special prayer services and holiday meals. Outside the Land of Israel, the first two days are celebrated as full festivals. The seventh day of Sukkot is calledHoshana Rabbah ("Great Hoshana", referring to the tradition that worshippers in thesynagogue walk around the perimeter of the sanctuary during morning services) and has a special observance of its own. The intermediate days are known asChol HaMoed ("festival weekdays"). According toHalakha, some types of work are forbidden duringChol HaMoed.[13] In Israel many businesses are closed during this time.[14]
Throughout the week of Sukkot, meals are eaten in the sukkah. If abrit milah (circumcision ceremony) orBar Mitzvah rises during Sukkot, theseudat mitzvah (obligatory festive meal) is served in the sukkah. Similarly, the father of a newborn boy greets guests to his Friday-nightShalom Zachar in the sukkah. Males sleep in the sukkah, provided the weather is tolerable. If it rains, the requirement of eating and sleeping in the sukkah is waived, except for eating there on the first night where every effort needs to be made to at least saykiddush (the sanctification prayer on wine) and eat an egg-sized piece of bread before going inside the house to finish the meal if the rain does not stop. Every day except the Sabbath, a blessing is recited over theLulav and theEtrog.[15]Keeping of Sukkot is detailed in theHebrew Bible (Nehemiah 8:13–18,Zechariah 14:16–19 andLeviticus 23:34–44); theMishnah (Sukkah 1:1–5:8); theTosefta (Sukkah 1:1–4:28); and theJerusalem Talmud (Sukkah 1a–) and BabylonianTalmud (Sukkah 2a–56b).
A family is hanging decorations from thes'chach (top or "ceiling") on the inside of asukkah.
The sukkah walls can be constructed of any material that blocks wind (wood, canvas, aluminum siding, sheets). The walls can be free-standing or include the sides of a building or porch. There must be at least three walls, with one permitted to be a partial wall.[16] The roof must be of organic material, known ass'chach, such as leafy tree overgrowth, schach mats or palm fronds – plant material that is no longer connected with the earth.[17] It is customary to decorate the interior of the sukkah with hanging decorations of thefour species[18] as well as with attractive artwork.[19]
InLeviticus 23:40, the Torah says to take four species and celebrate before God for seven days. Although the Torah only describes the species but does not identify all of them, theTalmud inTractate Sukkah derives the identity of the four species as a Citron, a Palm branch, two Willow branches, and three Myrtle branches. These are referred to in Hebrew as theLulav (palm branch) andEtrog (Citron) or justLulav. The palm branch, myrtle, and willows are tied together, usually with palm leaves, and the Citron is held next to the others.
These are taken all seven days of Sukkot except for Shabbat. The blessing is recited and theLulav andEtrog are held together, and shaken in the four directions and up and down. They are also held during theHallel prayer and during Hoshanot.[20][better source needed]
In 1953 theLubavitcher Rebbe instituted the public Lulav campaign to encourage observance of thisMitzvah amongst all jews, regardless of religious affiliation. It soon spread into an international phenomenon, the Jewish person holding theirLulav andEtrog, approaching complete strangers to offer to help them with theMitzvah becoming an iconic sight in many large cities.[21][better source needed]
Every day of Sukkot, a special regimen of animals were sacrificed in honor of the holiday as prescribed in the Torah[22][better source needed]. One of the iconic parts of these sacrifices, known as theMussaf offerings, was the daily offering of bulls. Starting at thirteen on the first day and subtracting by one daily until reaching seven on the seventh day, the total amount of bulls offered over the holiday was 70. The symbolism was that each bull was offered in honor of one of the nations listed in Genesis Chapter 10[23][better source needed].
Jewish Prayer, "Yehi Ratson", to be recited before entering the sukkah, 1738
Prayers during Sukkot include the reading of the Torah every day, reciting theMussaf (additional) service after morning prayers, recitingHallel, and adding special additions to theAmidah andGrace after Meals. In addition, the service includes rituals involving the Four Species. The lulav and etrog are not used on the Sabbath.[24]
On the Festival days, as well as the Sabbath of Chol Hamoed, some communities recite piyyutim.[25]
On each day of the festival, worshippers walk around the synagogue carrying the Four Species while reciting special prayers known asHoshanot.[24]: 852 This takes place either betweenHallel and the morning's Torah reading or at the end of Mussaf. This ceremony commemorates thewillow ceremony at theTemple in Jerusalem, in which willow branches were piled beside the altar with worshippers parading around the altar reciting prayers.[26][better source needed]
Family members sitting together in their Sukkah,Jerusalem, 1939
A custom originating withLurianic Kabbalah is to recite theushpizin prayer to "invite" one of seven "exalted guests" into the sukkah.[27] Theseushpizin (Jewish Babylonian Aramaic:אושפיזין "guests", a loanword fromMiddle Persianšpinza "lodging"), represent the "seven shepherds of Israel":Abraham,Isaac,Jacob, Moses, Aaron,Joseph andDavid, each of whom correlates with one of the seven lowersefirot (this is why Joseph, associated withYesod, followsMoses andAaron, associated withNetzach andHod respectively, even though he precedes them in the narrative). According to tradition, a different guest enters the sukkah each night, followed by the other six. Eachushpiz has a lesson to teach that parallels the spiritual focus of the day on which they visit based on the sefira associated with that character.[28][better source needed]
The second through seventh days of Sukkot (third through seventh days outside the Land of Israel) are calledChol HaMoed (חול המועד –lit. "festival weekdays")[31][better source needed]. These days are considered byhalakha to be more than regular weekdays but less than festival days. In practice, this means that all activities that are needed for the holiday—such as buying and preparing food, cleaning the house in honor of the holiday, or traveling to visit other people's sukkot or on family outings—are permitted by Jewish law. Activities that will interfere with relaxation and enjoyment of the holiday—such as laundering, mending clothes, engaging in labor-intensive activities—are not permitted.[32][33][better source needed]
Religious Jews often treat Chol HaMoed as a vacation period, eating nicer than usual meals in their sukkah, entertaining guests, visiting other families in their sukkot, and taking family outings. Many synagogues and Jewish centers also offer events and meals in their sukkot during this time to foster community and goodwill.[34][35][better source needed]
On theShabbat which falls during the week of Sukkot (or in the event when the first day of Sukkot is on Shabbat in the Land of Israel), theBook of Ecclesiastes is read during morningsynagogue services in Ashkenazic communities. (Diaspora Ashkenazic communities read it the second Shabbat {eighth day} when the first day of sukkot is on Shabbat.) This Book's emphasis on the ephemeralness of life ("Vanity of vanities, all is vanity...") echoes the theme of the sukkah, while its emphasis on death reflects the time of year in which Sukkot occurs (the "autumn" of life). The penultimate verse reinforces the message that adherence to God and HisTorah is the only worthwhile pursuit. (Cf.Ecclesiastes 12:13,14.)[36][better source needed]
A young family standing outside the modest sukkah they built for the holiday,Israel, 1949
In the days of theTemple in Jerusalem, all Israelite, and later Jewish men, women, and children on pilgrimage toJerusalem for the festival would gather in the Temple courtyard on the first day of Chol HaMoed Sukkot to hear the Jewish king read selections from theTorah. This ceremony, which was mandated inDeuteronomy 31:10–13, was held every seven years, in the year following theShmita (Sabbatical) year. This ceremony was discontinued after the destruction of the Temple, but it has been revived in Israel since 1952 on a smaller scale.[37]
TheSimchat Beit HaShoeivah, meaning “The Celebration of the House of Drawing Water,” was historically considered the most joyous event during theSecond Temple period. It was such a renowned celebration that the Talmud states, "One who never saw the Water-Drawing Celebration has never seen joy in his life"[38].
The celebration drew Jewish families, including scholars, farmers, and merchants, from distant lands such asSyria,Egypt, andBabylonia, who converged upon theTemple Mount for eight days of non-stop celebration. The festivities began on the close of the first day of Sukkot, following the afternoon offering, and lasted through the night until the morning offerings. To accommodate the crowds, Temple workers constructed large wooden bleachers on the courtyard walls, creatingseparation for women on the higher levels and men below. The celebration was famously lit by candelabras, whose enormous lanterns filled all of Jerusalem with light like day. The atmosphere was defined by loud music provided byPriests sounding trumpets andLevites playing instruments like lyres, flutes, and cymbals. A major spectacle involved distinguished elders, recognized by their long white beards, who sang, danced wildly, performed acrobatic feats, and juggled. The most illustrious sage,Rabban Shimon ben Gamliel, who presided over the supreme court, would famously juggle eight flaming torches.
The actual water-drawing ritual that gave the celebration its name occurred at dawn. Fresh water was drawn from theSiloam Spring, located outside Jerusalem. As the flasks of water were brought into the Temple through the Water Gate, trumpets sounded fanfare. On Sukkot, a kohen (priest) would pour a flask of this freshly drawn water onto the corner of thealtar, along with the regular morning offering.
Following the Temple's destruction, Jews continued to remember the event by gathering to sing and tell stories. A powerful modern renewal began in Brooklyn, N.Y., in the fall of 1980, when theLubavitcher Rebbe instructed that the celebration could start on the first night of Sukkot, accompanied by voices, since there was no Temple or Levite orchestra. This sparked a movement where hundreds of Jews danced and sang in the streets until dawn. The Rebbe endorsed the movement, establishing a new institution of Jewish life that continues yearly, providing a little taste of the celebration in the Temple[39][better source needed].
The seventh day of Sukkot is known asHoshana Rabbah (Great Supplication). This day is marked by a special synagogue service in which seven circuits are made by worshippers holding their Four Species, reciting additional prayers. In addition, a bundle of fivewillow branches is beaten on the ground.[24]: 859 [26]
The holiday immediately following Sukkot is known asShemini Atzeret (lit. "Eighth [Day] of Assembly"). Shemini Atzeret is usually viewed as a separate holiday.[40] In thediaspora a second additional holiday,Simchat Torah ("Joy of the Torah"), is celebrated. In the Land of Israel, Simchat Torah is celebrated on Shemini Atzeret. On Shemini Atzeret people leave their sukkah and eat their meals inside the house. Outside the Land of Israel, many eat in the sukkah without making the blessing. The sukkah is not used on Simchat Torah.[41][better source needed]
The symbolism of protection embedded in Sukkot finds its initial expression in the historical context of theIsraelite exodus from Egypt, emphasizing the Divine watchfulness over the Jewish people even during their lowest spiritual state. The command to reside in the temporary sukkah for seven days is intended so that future generations know that God sheltered His people when they departed Egypt[42].
The sukkah structure itself serves as a crucial component of the protective symbolism, particularly in relation to the harvest season. During the precarious period when the harvest is still in the field and vulnerable to natural threats like frost, flooding, and heat, the need for Divine protection is easily recognized. However, once the fruits and grain are safely brought indoors, there is a risk that the farmer will lose awareness of God’s constant involvement. To counteract this shift, Jews are commanded to forsake their solid, permanent residence and reside in the temporary sukkah. Unlike a house with a solid roof, a hut with a flimsy roof, through which the wind wafts and the stars are visible, forces the resident to be fully cognizant of God’s Divine protection.[43]
One of the core symbolisms of the festival of Sukkot centers on Jewish unity, a theme expressed through its three major precepts: the taking of the Four Kinds, dwelling in the sukkah, and joy. Sukkot is uniquely defined in prayer as “The Time of Our Joy,” emphasizing a communal happiness that transcends selfish boundaries. The Torah commands one to rejoice with "your son, your daughter, your servant, your maid, the Levite, the stranger, the orphan and the widow". The joy is meant to unite all segments of society, connecting the wealthy and the pauper, or the master and the servant.
To inspire a deeper unity, the Jew acquires the Four Kinds, which symbolize four different spiritual classes within the community based on knowledge (taste) and good deeds (scent): the etrog (taste and scent), the lulav (taste but no scent), the hadas (scent but no taste), and the aravah (no taste and no scent). When these Four Kinds are bound together, they reiterate the underlying oneness of a diverse people, integrating the scholarly and the ignorant into a single entity, thereby moving unity beyond mere connection to integration.
A yet higher form of unity is embodied by the sukkah itself. The Talmud states that "The entire nation of Israel may, and ought to, dwell in a single sukkah," because the structure represents a oneness so deep that all distinctions pale into insignificance. The sukkah encompasses the entirety of a person, from their mind to their "muddy boots," equally. When the whole nation dwells in a single sukkah, the unity expressed transcends individual differences and is deeper than the compassionate unity of joy or the complementary integration of the Four Kinds.[44][better source needed]
According to1 Kings 12:32–33, KingJeroboam, first king of the rebelliousnorthern kingdom, instituted a feast on the fifteenth day of theeighth month in imitation of the feast of Sukkot in Judah, and pilgrims went toBethel instead of Jerusalem to make thanksgiving offerings. Jeroboam feared that continued pilgrimages from the northern kingdom to Jerusalem could lead to pressure for reunion with Judah:
If these people go up to offer sacrifices in the house of the Lord at Jerusalem, then the heart of this people will turn back to their lord, Rehoboam king of Judah, and they will kill me and go back to Rehoboam king of Judah.
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Sukkot is celebrated by a number ofChristian denominations that observe holidays from theOld Testament. These groups base this on the belief thatJesus celebrated Sukkot (see theGospel of John 7). The holiday is celebrated according to itsHebrew calendar dates. The first mention of observing the holiday by Christian groups dates to the 17th century, among the sect of theSubbotniks inRussia.[45]
De Moor has suggested that there are links between Sukkot and theUgaritic New Year festival, in particular the Ugaritic custom of erecting two rows of huts built of branches on the temple roof as temporary dwelling houses for their gods.[46][47]
Some have pointed out that the originalThanksgiving holiday had many similarities with Sukkot in the Bible.[48][49]
^Schlesinger, Hanan (15 September 2002)."Ecclesiastes (Kohelet)".MyJewishLearning.org. Retrieved29 September 2019.
^Appel, Gershion (Fall 1959). "A Revival of the Ancient Assembly of Hakhel".Tradition: A Journal of Orthodox Jewish Thought.2 (1):119–127.JSTOR23255504.
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