TheSui dynasty (/swɛɪ/SWAY) was aChinese imperial dynasty that ruled from 581 to 618. The re-unification ofChina proper under the Sui brought theNorthern and Southern dynasties era to a close, ending a prolonged period of political division since theWar of the Eight Princes. The Sui endeavoured to rebuild the country, re-establishing and reforming many imperial institutions; in so doing, the Sui laid much of the foundation for the subsequentTang dynasty, who after toppling the Sui would ultimately preside overa new golden age in Chinese history. Often compared to theQin dynasty (221–206 BC), the Sui likewise unified China after a prolonged period of division, undertook wide-ranging reforms and construction projects to consolidate state power, and collapsed after a brief period.
The dynasty was founded byYang Jian (Emperor Wen), who had been a member of the military aristocracy that had developed in the northwest during the prolonged period of division.[2] The Suicapital was initially based in Daxing (Chang'an, modernXi'an), but later moved toLuoyang in 605, which had been re-founded as aplanned city. Wen and his successorEmperor Yang undertook various centralising reforms, most notably among them theequal-field system that aimed to reduce economic inequality and improve agricultural productivity, theFive Departments and Six Boards [zh] system, which preceded theThree Departments and Six Ministries system, and the standardisation and re-unification ofthe coinage. The Sui also encouraged the spread ofBuddhism throughout the empire. By the dynasty's mid-point, the state experienced considerable prosperity, enjoying a vast agricultural surplus that supported rapid population growth.
The Sui engaged in many construction mega-projects, including theGrand Canal, the extension of theGreat Wall, and the reconstruction of Luoyang.[3] The canal linked Luoyang in the east with Chang'an in the west, with the eastern economic and agricultural centres towards Jiangdu (nowYangzhou, Jiangsu) and Yuhang (nowHangzhou), and with the northern frontiers (near modernBeijing). While the initial motivations of the canal were improving grain shipments to the capital and military logistics—including thetransportation of troops—the new, reliable inland route would ultimately facilitate domestic trade, the flow of people, and cultural exchange for centuries. These mega-projects were led by an efficient centralised bureaucracy, butforcibly conscripted millions of workers at a heavy human cost.
After a series ofmilitary campaigns againstGoguryeo on theKorean peninsula, ended in defeat by 614, the dynasty disintegrated amid popular revolts that culminated in the assassination of Emperor Yang by a minister named Yuwen Huaji in 618.[4] The dynasty, which lasted only 37 years, was undermined by ambitious wars and construction projects, which overstretched its resources. Particularly, underEmperor Yang, heavy taxation and compulsory labour duties would eventually induce widespread revolts and briefcivil war following the fall of the dynasty.
During the lateNorthern and Southern dynasties period, theXianbei-ledNorthern Zhou conquered theNorthern Qi in 577, reunifying northern China. By this time, Yang Jian, a Northern Zhou general who would later found the Sui dynasty, became the regent to the Northern Zhou court.[2] Yang Jian's clan, the Yang clan of Hongnong, hadHan origins and claimed descent from theHan dynasty general Yang Zhen,[5][6][7][8][9] but had intermarried with the Xianbei for generations.[2] Yang Jian's daughter was the Empress Dowager, and her stepson,Emperor Jing of Northern Zhou, was a child. After crushing an army in the eastern provinces, Yang Jian usurped the throne from the Northern Zhou rulers, and becameEmperor Wen of Sui. While formerly the Duke of Sui when serving at the Zhou court, where the character隨 literally means 'to follow', implying loyalty, Emperor Wen created a unique character隋, morphed from that in his former title, as the name of his new dynasty. In a bloody purge, Wen had 59 Zhou princes eliminated, in contrast to his later reputation as the "Cultured Emperor".[10] Emperor Wen emphasised Han cultural identity during his reign,[2] abolishing theanti-Han policies of Northern Zhou and reclaiming his Han surname of Yang. Having won the support of Confucian scholars who held power in previous Han dynasties (abandoning the nepotism and corruption of thenine-rank system), Emperor Wen initiated a series of reforms aimed at strengthening his empire for the wars that would reunify China.
In his campaign for southern conquest, Emperor Wen assembled thousands of boats to confront the naval forces of theChen dynasty on theYangtze. The largest of these ships were very tall, having five layered decks and the capacity for 800 non-crew personnel. They were outfitted with six 50-foot-long booms that were used to swing and damage enemy ships, or to pin them down so that Sui marine troops could use act-and-board techniques.[10] Besides employingXianbei and other Chinese ethnic groups for the fight against Chen, Emperor Wen also employed the service of people from southeasternSichuan, which Sui had recently conquered.[10]
Stone sarcophagus ofLi Jingxun (Beilin Museum, Xi'an), a young Sui dynasty princess who died in 608 AD, with some of the artefacts and the epitaph.
In 588, the Sui had amassed 518,000 troops along the northern bank of the Yangtze River, stretching from Sichuan to theEast China Sea.[11] The Chen dynasty could not withstand such an assault. By 589, Sui troops entered Jiankang (nowNanjing) and the last emperor of Chen surrendered. The city was razed to the ground, while Sui troops escorted Chen nobles back north, where the northern aristocrats became fascinated with everything the south had to provide culturally and intellectually.
Although Emperor Wen was famous for bankrupting the state treasury with warfare and construction projects, he made many improvements to infrastructure during his early reign. He established granaries as sources of food and as a means to regulate market prices from the taxation of crops, much like the earlierHan dynasty. The large agricultural surplus supported rapid growth of population to a historical peak, which was only surpassed during the reign ofEmperor Xuanzong of Tang more than a century later.
The capital of Daxing (Chang'an, modernXi'an), while situated in the militarily secure heartland ofGuanzhong, was remote from the economic centres to the east and south of the empire. Emperor Wen initiated the construction of theGrand Canal, with completion of the first (and the shortest) route that directly linked Chang'an to theYellow River. Later, Emperor Yang enormously enlarged the scale of the Grand Canal construction.
Sui divisions under Yang (western regions not depicted)Administrative divisionsc. 610
Externally, the emergingTurkic Khaganate in the north posed a major threat to the newly founded dynasty. With Emperor Wen's diplomatic manoeuvre, the Khaganate split intoEastern andWestern halves. Later theGreat Wall was consolidated to further secure the northern territory. In Emperor Wen's late years, thefirst war with Goguryeo, ended with defeat. Nevertheless, the celebrated "Reign of Kaihuang" (era name of Emperor Wen) was considered by historians as one of the apexes in the two millennium imperial period of Chinese history.
The Sui emperors were from the northwest military aristocracy, and they cited the HanHongnong Yangshi [zh] clan as their ancestors.[12][13] They emphasised their Han ancestry, and claimed descent from the Han official Yang Zhen.[14] TheNew Book of Tang traces their patrilineal ancestry to theZhou dynasty kings via theDukes of Jin.[15] The Li of Zhaojun and the Lu of Fanyang hailed from Shandong and were related to the Liu clan, which was also linked to the Hongnong Yangshi of and other clans of Guanlong.[16]
The Yang of Hongnong, Jia of Hedong, Xiang of Henei, and Wang of Taiyuan from the Tang dynasty were later claimed as ancestors by Song dynasty lineages.[18]Information about these major political events in China weresomehow filtered west and reached theByzantine Empire, the continuation of theRoman Empire in the east. FromTurkic peoples of Central Asia the Eastern Romans derived a newname for China after the olderSinae andSerica:Taugast (Old Turkic:Tabghach), during itsNorthern Wei (386–535) period.[19] The 7th-century Byzantine historianTheophylact Simocatta wrote agenerally accurate depiction of thereunification of China by Emperor Wen of the Sui dynasty, with the conquest of the rival Chen dynasty in southern China. Simocatta correctly placed these events within the reign period of Byzantine rulerMaurice.[20]: 30 Simocatta also provided cursory information about thegeography of China, its division by theYangzi River and its capitalKhubdan (from Old TurkicKhumdan, i.e. Chang'an) along with itscustoms and culture, deeming its people "idolatrous" but wise in governance.[20]: 30–31 He noted that the ruler was named "Taisson", which he claimed meant "Son of God", perhaps ChineseTianzi (Son of Heaven) or even the name of the contemporary rulerEmperor Taizong of Tang.[20]: 29
Emperor Yang of Sui (569–618) ascended the throne after his father's death, possibly by murder. He further extended the empire, but unlike his father, did not seek to gain support from the nomads. Instead, he restoredConfucian education and theConfucian examination system for bureaucrats. By supporting educational reforms, he lost the support of the nomads. He also started many expensive construction projects such as theGrand Canal, and became embroiled in several costly wars. Between these policies, invasions into China from Turkic nomads, and his growing life of decadent luxury at the expense of the peasantry, he lost public support and was eventually assassinated by his own ministers.
Both Emperors Yang and Wen sent military expeditions intoVietnam asAnnam in northern Vietnam had been incorporated into the Chinese empire over 600 years earlier during theHan dynasty (202 BC – 220 AD). However the Kingdom ofChampa in central Vietnam became a major counterpart toChinese invasions to its north. According to Ebrey, Walthall, and Palais, these invasions became known as the Linyi-Champa Campaign (602–605).[21]
TheHanoi area formerly held by the Han and Jin dynasties was easily retaken from theEarly Lý dynasty rulerLý Phật Tử in 602. A few years later the Sui army pushed farther south and was attacked by troops onwar elephants from Champa in southern Vietnam. The Sui army feigned retreat and dug pits to trap the elephants, lured the Champan troops to attack then used crossbows against the elephants causing them to turn around and trample their own soldiers. Although Sui troops were victorious many succumbed to disease as northern soldiers did not have immunity totropical diseases such asmalaria.[21]
The Sui dynasty and main Asian polities circa 600.[22]
The Sui dynasty led a series of massive expeditions to invadeGoguryeo, one of theThree Kingdoms of Korea. Emperor Yang conscripted many soldiers for the campaign. This army was so enormous it recorded in historical texts that it took 30 days for all the armies to exit their last rallying point nearShanhaiguan before invading Goguryeo. In one instance the soldiers—both conscripted and paid—listed over 3000 warships, up to 1.15 million infantry, 50,000 cavalry, 5000 artillery, and more. The army stretched to 1000li, or about 410 km (250 mi), across rivers and valleys, over mountains and hills. Each of the four military expeditions ended in failure, incurring a substantial financial and manpower deficit from which the Sui would never recover.
Chinese swords of the Sui dynasty datedc. 600, found nearLuoyang. The P-shaped furniture of the bottom sword's scabbard is similar to and may have been derived from sword scabbards of theSarmatians andSassanians.[23]Strolling About in Spring, by Sui-era artistZhan Ziqian
One of the major work projects undertaken by the Sui was construction activities along theGreat Wall of China; but this, along with other large projects, strained the economy and angered the resentful workforce employed. During the last few years of the Sui dynasty, the rebellion that rose against it took many of China's able-bodied men from rural farms and other occupations, which in turn damaged the agricultural base and the economy further.[24] Men would deliberately break their limbs in order to avoid military conscription, calling the practice "propitious paws" and "fortunate feet."[24] Later, after the fall of Sui, in the year 642,Emperor Taizong of Tang made an effort to eradicate this practice by issuing a decree of a stiffer punishment for those who were found to deliberately injure and heal themselves.[24]
Although the Sui dynasty was relatively short (581–618), much was accomplished during its tenure. The Grand Canal was one of the main accomplishments. It was extended north from the Hangzhou region across the Yangtze to Yangzhou, and then northwest to the region of Luoyang. Again, like the Great Wall works, the massive conscription of labour and allocation of resources for the Grand Canal project resulted in challenges for Sui dynastic continuity. The eventual fall of the Sui dynasty was also due to the many losses caused by the failed military campaigns against Goguryeo. It was after these defeats and losses that the country was left in ruins and rebels soon took control of the government. Emperor Yang was assassinated in 618. He had gone South after being threatened by various rebel groups and was killed by his Yuwen clan advisors. Meanwhile, in the North, the aristocrat Li Yuan (李淵) held an uprising after which he ended up ascending the throne to becomeEmperor Gaozu of Tang.
There were Dukedoms for the offspring of the royal families of the Zhou dynasty, Sui dynasty, and Tang dynasty in theLater Jin (Five Dynasties).[25] This practice was referred to asèrwáng-sānkè [simple;zh] (二王三恪).
Although the Sui dynasty was relatively short-lived, in terms of culture, it represents a transition from the preceding ages, and many cultural developments which can be seen to be incipient during the Sui dynasty later were expanded and consolidated during the ensuingTang dynasty, and later ages. This includes not only the major public works initiated, such as the Great Wall and the Great Canal, but also the political system developed by Sui, which was adopted by Tang with little initial change other than at the top of the political hierarchy. Other cultural developments of the Sui dynasty included religion and literature, particular examples being Buddhism and poetry.
Rituals and sacrifices were conducted by the Sui.[26]
The Sui court pursued a pro-Taoist policy. The first reign of the dynasty saw the state promoting the Northern Louguan school of Taoism, while the second reign instead promoted the Southern Shangqing school of Taoism, possibly due to Emperor Yang's preference for Southern culture.[27]
Buddhism was popular during theSixteen Kingdoms andNorthern and Southern dynasties period that preceded the Sui dynasty, spreading from India throughKushan Afghanistan into China during the LateHan period. Buddhism gained prominence during the period when central political control was limited. Buddhism created a unifying cultural force that uplifted the people out of war and into the Sui dynasty. In many ways, Buddhism was responsible for the rebirth of culture in China under the Sui dynasty.
While early Buddhist teachings were acquired from Sanskritsutras, it was during the late Six dynasties and Sui dynasty that local Chinese schools of Buddhist thoughts started to flourish. Most notably,Zhiyi founded theTiantai school, and completed theGreat treatise on Concentration and Insight, within which he taught the principle of "Three Thousand Realms in a Single moment of Life" as the essence of Buddhist teaching outlined in theLotus Sutra.
Emperor Wen and his empress had converted to Buddhism to legitimise imperial authority over China and the conquest of Chen. The emperor presented himself as aCakravartin king, a Buddhist monarch who would use military force to defend the Buddhist faith. In the year 601 AD, Emperor Wen had relics of the Buddha distributed to temples throughout China, with edicts that expressed his goals, "all the people within theFour Seas may, without exception, develop enlightenment and together cultivate fortunate karma, bringing it to pass that present existences will lead to happy future lives, that the sustained creation of good causation will carry us one and all up to wondrous enlightenment".[28]: 89 Ultimately, this act was an imitation ofAshoka, a ruler of the ancientMaurya Empire in India.[28]: 89
Confucian philosopherWang Tong wrote and taught during the Sui dynasty, and even briefly held office as Secretary of Shuzhou.[29] His most famous (as well as only surviving) work, theExplanation of the Mean (Zhongshuo, 中說)[30] was compiled shortly after his death in 617.
Yang Guang depicted as Emperor of Sui. Painted byYan Liben (600–673)
Although poetry continued to be written, and certain poets rose in prominence while others disappeared from the landscape, the brief Sui dynasty, in terms of the development of Chinese poetry, lacks distinction, though it nonetheless represents a continuity between the Six Dynasties and the poetry of Tang.[31] Sui dynasty poets includeYang Guang (580–618), who was the last Sui emperor (and a sort ofpoetry critic); and also, the Lady Hou, one of his consorts.
^abcIn 617, the rebel general Li Yuan (the laterEmperor Gaozu of Tang) declared Emperor Yang's grandsonYang You emperor (as Emperor Gong) and "honored" Emperor Yang asTaishang Huang (retired emperor) at the western capitalDaxing (Chang'an), but only the commanderies under Li's control recognized this change; for the other commanderies under Sui control, Emperor Yang was still regarded as emperor, not as retired emperor. After news of Emperor Yang's death in 618 reached Daxing and the eastern capitalLuoyang, Li Yuan deposed Emperor Gong and took the throne himself, establishing theTang dynasty, but the Sui officials at Luoyang declared Emperor Gong's brotherYang Tong (later also known as Emperor Gong during the brief reign ofWang Shichong over the region as the emperor of a brief Zheng (鄭) state) emperor. Meanwhile,Yuwen Huaji, the general under whose leadership the plot to kill Emperor Yang was carried out, declared Emperor Wen's grandsonYang Hao emperor but killed Yang Hao later in 618 and declared himself emperor of a brief Xu (許) state. As Yang Hao was completely under Yuwen's control and only "reigned" briefly, he is not usually regarded as a legitimate emperor of Sui, while Yang Tong's legitimacy is more recognized by historians but still disputed.
^Taagepera, Rein (1979). "Size and Duration of Empires: Growth-Decline Curves, 600 B.C. to 600 A.D".Social Science History.3 (3/4): 129.doi:10.2307/1170959.JSTOR1170959.
^abcdTanner, Harold Miles (2009).China: A History. Hackett. pp. 167–168.ISBN978-0-87220-915-2.Yang Jian (r. 581–604), the founder of the Sui dynasty, was a member of the ethnically mixed, militaristic northwestern Chinese aristocracy developed during the period of division. The Yang clan had served, and intermarried with the Xianbei for generations. ... Although he was a product of the mixed-ethnicity northern aristocracy, Yang Jian made a point of emphasizing Han Chinese cultural identity.
^CIHoCn, p. 114: "dug between 605 and 609 by means of enormous levies of conscripted labor".
^Luttwak, Edward N. (2009).The Grand Strategy of the Byzantine Empire. Cambridge and London: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.ISBN978-0-674-03519-5, p. 168.
^Watson, Burton (1971).Chinese Lyricsm: Shih Poetry from the Second to the Twelfth Century. (New York: Columbia University Press).ISBN0-231-03464-4, p. 109.
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