Under his "New Order" regime, Suharto established a strong, centralised government dominated by the military, evolving from an initialoligarchic military dictatorship into a deeplyauthoritarian state centred on acult of personality that elevated him as the nation's undisputed leader.[14] His staunchanti-communist stance and ability to maintain political stability across Indonesia's vast and diverse archipelago secured significant economic and diplomatic backing from Western powers, particularly theUnited States, during theCold War.[15][16] During much of his presidency, Indonesia underwent rapid industrialisation, sustained economic growth (with GDP growing at around 7% per annum,[17]) improved education, and a rise in domestic entrepreneurship, developments that led thePeople's Consultative Assembly (MPR) to name him "Father of Development" (Indonesian:Bapak Pembangunan) in 1982.[18][19] In 1986, he was awarded the Ceres Medal by theUnited NationsFood and Agriculture Organization (FAO) for achieving self-sufficiency inrice production.[20] However, by the 1990s, his regime's increasing authoritarianism andwidespread corruption fueled public dissatisfaction, which reached a breaking point during the1997 Asian financial crisis that plunged the country into economic turmoil andwidespread unrest.[21][22] Under immense pressure, Suhartoresigned in May 1998 after more than three decades in power.
Suharto died in January 2008 and received a state military funeral with full honors. The Indonesian government declared a week of national mourning.[23][24] Suharto's 32-year presidency and legacy are highly divisive, and he remains a controversial figure within the Indonesian general public. He has been praised for making Indonesia into an economic success story, bringing stability to the region particularly during theCold War period, and led Indonesia when it played a significant role in international affairs.[23][25][26] However, others have denounced hisauthoritarian rule,[2][3][4] widespread corruption,[c] and extensive human rights violations (such asa violent anti-communist purge prior to his rule and subsequentrepression of Chinese culture in Indonesia).[2][6][7] Plans to award the status ofNational Hero to Suharto are being considered by theIndonesian government and have been debated vigorously.[30][31]
Like manyJavanese, Suharto hadonly one name.[22] The spelling "Suharto" reflects modern Indonesian orthography, although the general approach in Indonesia is to rely on the spelling preferred by the person concerned. At the time of his birth, thestandard transcription was "Soeharto", and he used the original spelling throughout his life. The international English-language press generally uses the spelling "Suharto", while the Indonesian government and media use "Soeharto".[32]
After completing theHajj in 1991, he was given theIslamic name "Mohammad" byKing Fahd of Saudi Arabia and received the honorific titleHajji. Throughout the 1990s and until his death, Suharto used the name "Haji Mohammad Suharto".[33]
Suharto was born on 8 June 1921 in a plaited-bamboo-walled house in the hamlet ofKemusuk, a part of the larger village of Godean, then part of theDutch East Indies. The village is 15 kilometres (9 mi) west ofYogyakarta, the cultural heartland of theJavanese.[16][34] Born to ethnic Javanese parents, he was the only child of his father's second marriage. His father, Kertosudiro, had two children from his previous marriage and was a village irrigation official. His mother, Sukirah, a local woman, was distantly related toHamengkubuwono V by his first concubine.[35] Five weeks after Suharto's birth, his mother suffered anervous breakdown; he was placed in the care of his paternal great-aunt, Kromodirjo as a result.[36] Kertosudiro and Sukirah divorced early in Suharto's life and both later remarried. At the age of three, Suharto was returned to his mother, who had married a local farmer whom Suharto helped in the rice paddies.[36] In 1929, Suharto's father took him to live with his sister, who was married to an agricultural supervisor, Prawirowihardjo, in the town of Wuryantoro in a poor and low-yielding farming area nearWonogiri. Over the following two years, he was taken back to his mother in Kemusuk by his stepfather and then back again to Wuryantoro by his father.[37]
Prawirowihardjo took to raising the boy as his own, which provided Suharto with a father-figure and a stable home in Wuryantoro. In 1931, he moved to the town of Wonogiri to attend the primary school, living first with Prawirohardjo's son Sulardi, and later with his father's relative Hardjowijono. While living with Hardjowijono, Suharto became acquainted with Darjatmo, adukun ("shaman") of Javanese mystical arts and faith healing. The experience deeply affected him and later, as president, Suharto surrounded himself with powerful symbolic language.[16] Difficulties in paying the fees for his education in Wonogiri resulted in another move back to his father in Kemusuk, where he continued studying at a lower-fee SchakelMuhammadiyah (middle school) in the city ofYogyakarta until 1938.[37][38] Suharto's upbringing contrasts with that of leading Indonesian nationalists such asSukarno in that he is believed to have had little interest inanti-colonialism, or political concerns beyond his immediate surroundings. Unlike Sukarno and his circle, Suharto had little or no contact with European colonisers. Consequently, he did not learn to speakDutch or other European languages in his youth. He learned to speak Dutch after his induction into the Dutch military in 1940.[38]
Suharto finished middle school at the age of 18 and took a clerical job at a bank in Wuryantaro. He was forced to resign after a bicycle mishap tore his only working clothes.[39] Following a spell of unemployment, he joined theRoyal Netherlands East Indies Army (KNIL) in June 1940 and undertook basic training inGombong near Yogyakarta. With the Netherlands under German occupation and the Japanese pressing for access to Indonesian oil supplies, the Dutch had opened up the KNIL to large intakes of previously excluded Javanese.[40] Suharto was assigned to Battalion XIII at Rampal, graduated from a short training course atKNIL Kadetschool inGombong to become a sergeant, and was posted to a KNIL reserve battalion inCisarua.[41] Following the Dutch surrender to theinvading Japanese forces in March 1942, Suharto abandoned his KNIL uniform and went back to Wurjantoro. After months of unemployment, he then became one of the thousands of Indonesians who took the opportunity to join Japanese-organized security forces by joining the Yogyakarta police force.[40]
In October 1943, Suharto was transferred from the police force to the newly formed Japanese-sponsored militia, thePembela Tanah Air (PETA) in which Indonesians served as officers. In his training to serve with the rank ofshodancho (platoon commander) he encountered a localised version of the Japanesebushido, or "way of the warrior," used to indoctrinate troops. This training encouraged an anti-Dutch and pro-nationalist thought, although toward the aims of the Imperial Japanese militarists. The encounter with a nationalistic and militarist ideology is believed to have profoundly influenced Suharto's own way of thinking.[42] Suharto was posted to a PETA coastal defense battalion atWates, south of Yogyakarta until he was admitted for training forchudancho (company commander) inBogor from April to August 1944. As company commander, he conducted training for new PETA recruits inSurakarta,Jakarta, andMadiun. The Japanese surrender andProclamation of Indonesian Independence in August 1945 occurred while Suharto was posted to the remote Brebeg area (on the slopes ofMount Wilis) to train new NCOs to replace those executed by the Japanese in the aftermath of the failed February1945 PETA Revolt in Blitar, led bySupriyadi.
Two days after the Japanese surrender in the Pacific, independence leadersSukarno andHattadeclared Indonesian independence and were appointed president and vice-president respectively of the new Republic. Suharto disbanded his regiment under orders from the Japanese command and returned to Yogyakarta.[43] As republican groups rose to assert Indonesian independence, Suharto joined a new unit of the newly formed Indonesian army. Based on his PETA experience, he was appointed deputy commander, and subsequently, a battalion commander when the republican forces were formally organized in October 1945.[43] Suharto was involved in fighting against Allied troops aroundMagelang andSemarang and was subsequently appointed the head of a brigade as lieutenant-colonel, having earned respect as a field commander.[44] In the early years of the war, he organized local armed forces into Battalion X of Regiment I; Suharto was promoted to Major and became Battalion X's leader.[45] The arrival of the Allies, under a mandate to return the situation to thestatus quo ante bellum, quickly led to clashes between Indonesian republicans and Allied forces, i.e. returning Dutch and assisting British forces.[46]
Suharto led his Division X troops to halt an advance by the Dutch T ("Tiger") Brigade on 17 May 1946. It earned him the respect of Lieutenant-Colonel Sunarto Kusumodirjo, who invited him to draft the working guidelines for the Battle Leadership Headquarters (MPP), a body created to organize and unify the command structure of the Indonesian Nationalist forces.[46] The military forces of the still infant Republic of Indonesia were constantly restructuring. By August 1946, Suharto was head of the 22nd Regiment of Division III (the "Diponegoro Division") stationed in Yogyakarta. In late 1946, the Diponegoro Division assumed responsibility for the defence of the west and southwest ofYogyakarta from Dutch forces. Conditions at the time are reported by Dutch sources as miserable; Suharto himself is reported as assisting smuggling syndicates in the transport ofopium through the territory he controlled, to generate income. In September 1948, Suharto was dispatched to meetMusso, chairman of theIndonesian Communist Party (PKI) in an unsuccessful attempt at a peaceful reconciliation of thecommunist uprising in Madiun.[47]
In December 1948, the Dutch launched "Operation Kraai," which resulted in the capture of Sukarno and Hatta and the capitalYogyakarta. Suharto was appointed to lead theWehrkreise III, consisting of two battalions, which waged guerrilla warfare against the Dutch from the hills south ofYogyakarta.[47] In dawn raids on 1 March 1949, Suharto's forces and local militia recaptured the city, holding it until noon.[48] Suharto's later accounts had him as the lone plotter, although other sources say SultanHamengkubuwono IX of Yogyakarta, and the Panglima of the Third Division ordered the attack. However, GeneralAbdul Nasution said that Suharto took great care in preparing the "General Offensive" (Indonesian:Serangan Umum). Civilians sympathetic to the Republican cause within the city had been galvanised by the show of force which proved that the Dutch had failed to win the guerrilla war. Internationally, the United Nations Security Council pressured the Dutch to cease the military offensive and to recommence negotiations, which eventually led to the Dutch withdrawal from the Yogyakarta area in June 1949 and to complete transfer of sovereignty in December 1949. Suharto was responsible for the takeover of Yogyakarta city from the withdrawing Dutch in June 1949.[49]
During the Revolution, Suharto marriedSiti Hartinah (known as Tien), the daughter of a minor noble in theMangkunegaran royal house ofSolo.[50] The arranged marriage was enduring and supportive, lasting until Tien's death in 1996.[16] The couple had six children:Siti Hardiyanti Rukmana (Tutut, born 1949), Sigit Harjojudanto (born 1951), Bambang Trihatmodjo (born 1953),Siti Hediati Hariyadi (Titiek, born 1959),Hutomo Mandala Putra (Tommy, born 1962), and Siti Hutami Endang Adiningish (Mamiek, born 1964). It was characteristic of a military family’s life that three of their children were born when Suharto was on duty and away from his family. Their first child was born when Suharto was fighting in aguerrilla war outside ofYogyakarta. He did not see their first daughter for three months after her birth. Their second child, a son, was born while Suharto was serving inSouth Sulawesi. Another, their fifth child (and third son), was born when he was leading theMandala Command for the Liberation of West Irian.[51]
In the years following Indonesian independence, Suharto served in theIndonesian National Army, primarily inJava. In 1950, as a colonel, he led the Garuda Brigade in suppressing theMakassar uprising, a rebellion of former colonial soldiers who supported the Dutch-establishedState of East Indonesia and its federal entity, theUnited States of Indonesia.[52] During his year inMakassar, Suharto became acquainted with his neighbours, the Habibie family, whose eldest sonBJ Habibie was later Suharto's vice-president, and went on to succeed him as president. In 1951–1952, Suharto led his troops in defeating the Islamic-inspiredrebellion of Battalion 426 in theKlaten area ofCentral Java.[53] Appointed to lead four battalions in early 1953, he organized their participation in battling Darul Islam insurgents in northwestern Central Java and anti-bandit operations in theMount Merapi area. He also sought to stem leftist sympathies among his troops. His experience in this period left Suharto with a deep distaste for both Islamic and communist radicalism.[54]
Between 1956 and 1959, he served in the important position of commander of Diponegoro Division based inSemarang, responsible for Central Java andYogyakarta provinces. His relationship with prominent businessmenLiem Sioe Liong andBob Hasan, which extended throughout his presidency, began in Central Java, where he was involved in a series of "profit-generating" enterprises conducted primarily to keep the poorly funded military unit functioning.[55] Army anti-corruption investigations implicated Suharto in a 1959 smuggling scandal. Relieved of his position, he was transferred to the army's Staff and Command School (Seskoad) in the city ofBandung.[56]
In his office as the head of the Strategic Reserve,c. 1963
While in Bandung, he was promoted to brigadier-general, and in late 1960, promoted to army deputy chief of staff.[16] On 6 March 1961, he was given an additional command, as head of the army's new Strategic Reserve (Korps Tentara I Cadangan Umum AD, laterKostrad), a ready-reaction air-mobile force based inJakarta.[16][57] In January 1962, Suharto was promoted to the rank ofmajor general and appointed to lead Operation Mandala, a joint army-navy-air force command based inMakassar. This formed the military side of the campaign to winwestern New Guinea from the Dutch, who were preparing it for its own independence, separate from Indonesia.[16] In 1965, Suharto was assigned operational command of Sukarno'sKonfrontasi, against the newly formed Malaysia. Fearful that theKonfrontasi would leave Java thinly covered by the army and hand control to the 2 million-strongIndonesian Communist Party (PKI), he authorised a Kostrad intelligence officer,Ali Murtopo, to open secret contacts with the British and Malaysians.[16]
Tensions between the military and communists increased in April 1965, when Sukarno endorsed the immediate implementation of the PKI's proposal for a "fifth armed force" consisting of armed peasants and workers. However, this idea was rejected by the army's leadership as being tantamount to the PKI establishing its own armed forces. In May, the "Gilchrist Document" aroused Sukarno's fear of a military plot to overthrow him, a fear which he repeatedly mentioned during the next few months. On his independence day speech in August, Sukarno declared his intention to commit Indonesia to an anti-imperialist alliance with China and other communist countries and warned the army not to interfere.[58][page needed]
While Sukarno devoted his energy for domestic and international politics, the economy of Indonesia deteriorated rapidly with worsening widespread poverty and hunger, while foreign debt obligations became unmanageable and infrastructure crumbled. Sukarno's Guided Democracy stood on fragile grounds due to the inherent conflict between its two underlying support pillars, the military and the communists. The military, nationalists, and the Islamic groups were shocked by the rapid growth of the communist party under Sukarno's protection. They feared the imminent establishment of a communist state in Indonesia. By 1965, the PKI had three million members and was particularly strong in Central Java and Bali. The party had become the most potent political party in Indonesia.
Major General Suharto (at right, in the foreground) attending the funeral for the assassinated generals, 5 October 1965
Before dawn on 1 October 1965, six army generals were kidnapped and executed in Jakarta by soldiers from the Presidential Guard, Diponegoro Division, and Brawidjaja Division.[59] Soldiers occupied Merdeka Square including the areas in front of the Presidential Palace, the national radio station, and telecommunications centre. At 7:10 amUntung bin Syamsuri announced on the radio that the "30 September Movement" had forestalled a coup attempt onSukarno by "CIA-backed power-mad generals," and that it was "an internal army affair". The movement never made any attempt on Suharto's life.[60] Suharto had been in Jakarta army hospital that evening with his three-year-old sonTommy who had a scalding injury. It was here that he was visited by Colonel Abdul Latief, a key member of the Movement and close family friend of Suharto. According to Latief's later testimony, the conspirators assumed Suharto to be a Sukarno-loyalist; hence Latief went to inform him of the impending kidnapping plan to save Sukarno from treacherous generals, upon which Suharto seemed to offer his neutrality.[61]
Upon being told of the killings, Suharto went toKostrad headquarters just before dawn from where he could see soldiers occupying Merdeka Square. He mobilised Kostrad and RPKAD (nowKopassus) special forces to seize control of the centre of Jakarta, capturing key strategic sites including the radio station without resistance. Suharto announced over the radio at 9:00 pm that six generals had been kidnapped by "counter-revolutionaries" and that the 30 September Movement actually intended to overthrow Sukarno. He said he was in control of the army, and that he would crush the Movement and safeguard Sukarno.[62] Suharto issued an ultimatum toHalim Air Force Base, where the G30S had based themselves and where Sukarno, air force commanderOmar Dhani and PKI chairmanDipa Nusantara Aidit had gathered, causing them to disperse before Suhartoist soldiers occupied the airbase on 2 October after short fighting.[63] With the failure of the poorly organized coup,[63] and having secured authority from the president to restore order and security, Suharto's faction was firmly in control of the army by 2 October (he was officially appointed army commander on 14 October). On 5 October, Suharto led a dramatic public ceremony to bury the generals' bodies.
Complicated and partisan theories continue to this day over the identity of the attempted coup's organizers and their aims. The army's version, and subsequently that of the "New Order," was that the PKI was solely responsible. A propaganda campaign by the army and Islamic andCatholic student groups convinced both Indonesian and international audiences that it was a communist coup attempt, and that the killings were cowardly atrocities against Indonesian heroes.[64] The army in alliance with civilian religious groups, and backed by the United States and other Western powers, led acampaign of mass killings to purge Indonesian society, government, and armed forces of theCommunist Party of Indonesia and other leftist organizations.[64][65][66][67] The purge spread from Jakarta to much of the rest of the country.[68] The most widely accepted estimates are that at least 500,000 to over 1 million were killed.[69][70][71][72][73][74] As many as 1.5 million were imprisoned at one stage or another.[75] As a result of the purge, one of Sukarno's three pillars of support, the Indonesian Communist Party, was effectively eliminated by the other two, the military and political Islam.[76] The CIA described the purge as "one of the worstmass murders of the 20th century."[77]
Sukarno continued to command loyalty from large sections of the armed forces as well as the general population, and Suharto was careful not to be seen to be seizing power in his own coup. For eighteen months following the quashing of the 30 September Movement, there was a complicated process of political manoeuvres against Sukarno, including student agitation, stacking of parliament, media propaganda and military threats.[78] In January 1966, university students under the banner ofKAMI, began demonstrations against the Sukarno government voicing demands for the disbandment of the PKI and control of hyperinflation. The students received support and protection from the army. Street fights broke out between the students and pro-Sukarno loyalists with the pro-Suharto students prevailing due to army protection.[79]
In February 1966, Sukarno promoted Suharto to lieutenant-general (and to full general in July 1966).[80] The killing of a student demonstrator and Sukarno's order for the disbandment ofKAMI in February 1966 further galvanised public opinion against the president. On 11 March 1966, the appearance of unidentified troops aroundMerdeka Palace during a cabinet meeting (which Suharto had not attended) forced Sukarno to flee toBogor Palace (60 km away) by helicopter. Three pro-Suharto generals, Major GeneralBasuki Rahmat, Brigadier GeneralM. Jusuf, and Brigadier GeneralAmir Machmud went to Bogor to meet Sukarno. There, they persuaded and secured a presidential decree from Sukarno (seeSupersemar) that gave Suharto authority to take any action necessary to maintain security.[78] Using theSupersemar letter, Suharto ordered the banning of the PKI the following day and proceeded to purge pro-Sukarno elements from the parliament, the government and military, accusing them of being communist sympathisers.[80]
The army arrested 15 cabinet ministers and forced Sukarno to appointa new cabinet consisting of Suharto supporters. The army arrested pro-Sukarno and pro-communist members of theMPRS (parliament), and Suharto replaced chiefs of the navy, air force, and the police force with his supporters, who then began an extensive purge within each service.[80] In June 1966, the now-purged parliament passed 24 resolutions including the banning ofMarxism–Leninism, ratifying theSupersemar, and stripping Sukarno of his title of President for Life. Crucially, it also resolved that if Sukarno were unable to carry out his duties, the holder of theSupersemar—Suharto—would become acting president. Against the wishes of Sukarno, the government ended theKonfrontasi with Malaysia and rejoined the United Nations[81] (Sukarno had removed Indonesia from the UN in the previous year).[82] Suharto did not seek Sukarno's outright removal at this MPRS session due to the remaining support for the president among some elements of the armed forces.[83] By January 1967, Suharto felt confident that he had removed all significant support for Sukarno within the armed forces. After Sukarno gave his version of events, the MPRS concluded that he had been derelict in his duties and decided to hold another session to impeach him. On 20 February 1967, facing an increasingly untenable situation, Sukarno announced he would resign from the presidency. Later, the MPRS session stripped him of his remaining power on 12 March and named Suhartoacting president.[84] Sukarno was placed under house arrest inBogor Palace; little more was heard from him, and he died in June 1970.[85] On 27 March 1968, the MPRSelected Suharto for a full five-year term as president.[86]
Suharto promoted his "New Order," as opposed toSukarno's "Old Order," as a society based on thePancasila ideology. After initially being careful not to offend sensitivities of Islamic scholars who feared Pancasila might develop into a quasi-religious cult, Suharto secured a parliamentary resolution in 1983 which obliged all organizations in Indonesia to adhere to Pancasila as a fundamental principle. He also instituted mandatory Pancasila training programs for all Indonesians, from primary school students to office workers. In practice, however, the vagueness of Pancasila was exploited by Suharto's government to justify their actions and to condemn their opponents as "anti-Pancasila."[87] The New Order also implemented theDwifungsi ("Dual Function") policy which enabled the military to have an active role in all levels of the Indonesian government, economy, and society.
Until the mid-1960s, Indonesia was known as the poorest country in Asia and amongst the poorest in the world. When Suharto came to power, inflation reached 650% per year. Suharto understood that if he wanted to defeat communism, he had to beat poverty.[88] To stabilise the economy, he appointed an economic advisory group consisting of mostly US-educated intellectuals from the Economic Faculty of theUniversity of Indonesia, dubbed the "Berkeley Mafia", to formulate significant changes in economic policy.[89][90] Amongst the members of the economic group wereWidjojo Nitisastro,Ali Wardhana andEmil Salim. The group implementedfree market policies; a complete reversal from Sukarno’s policies which tightly regulated manufacturing and trade.[89] In addition, by cutting subsidies, decreasing government debt, and reforming the exchange rate mechanism, inflation was lowered from 660% in 1966 to 19% in 1969.[90] With the economic group, Suharto was not an autocratic leader. He was willing to learn and rarely imposed his will on the team.[91] The threat of famine was alleviated by the influx ofUSAID rice aid shipments from 1967 to 1968.[90]
With a lack of domestic capital that was required for economic growth, the New Order reversed Sukarno's economic self-sufficiency policies and opened selected economic sectors of the country to foreign investment through the 1967 Foreign Investment Law. Suharto travelled to Western Europe and Japan to promote investment in Indonesia. The first foreign investors to re-enter Indonesia included mining companiesFreeport Sulphur Company /International Nickel Company. Following government regulatory frameworks, domestic entrepreneurs (mostly Chinese-Indonesians) emerged in the late 1960s and early 1970s in the import-substitution light-manufacturing sector such asAstra Group andSalim Group.[92]
From 1967, the government secured low-interest foreign aid from ten countries grouped under the Inter-Governmental Group on Indonesia (IGGI) to cover its budget deficit.[93] With the IGGI funds and the later jump in oil export revenue from the1973 oil crisis, the government invested in infrastructure under a series of five-year plans, dubbedREPELITA (Rencana Pembangunan Lima Tahun) I to VI from 1969 to 1998.[16][92][94]
Suharto taking the presidential oath of office, 27 March 1968
Having been appointed president, Suharto still needed to share power with various elements including Indonesian generals who considered Suharto as mereprimus inter pares, and Islamic and student groups who participated in the anti-communist purge. Suharto, aided by his "Office of Personal Assistants" (Aspri) clique of military officers from his days as commander of Diponegoro Division, particularlyAli Murtopo, began to systematically cement his hold on power by subtly sidelining potential rivals while rewarding loyalists with political position and monetary incentives.[95] Having successfully stood-down MPRS chairman GeneralAbdul Haris Nasution's 1968 attempt to introduce a bill which would have severely curtailed presidential authority, Suharto had him removed from his position as MPRS chairman in 1969 and forced his early retirement from the military in 1972. In 1967, generalsHartono Rekso Dharsono,Kemal Idris, andSarwo Edhie Wibowo (dubbed "New Order radicals") opposed Suharto's decision to allow participation of existing political parties in elections in favour of a non-ideological two-party system similar to those found in many Western countries. Suharto sent Dharsono overseas as an ambassador, while Idris and Wibowo were sent to distantNorth Sumatra andSouth Sulawesi as regional commanders.[96]
To placate demands from civilian politicians for the holding of elections, as manifested in MPRS resolutions of 1966 and 1967, Suharto government formulated a series of laws regarding elections as well as the structure and duties of parliament which were passed by MPRS in November 1969 after protracted negotiations. The law provided for aparliament (Madjelis Permusjawaratan Rakjat, MPR) with the power to elect presidents, consisting of theHouse of Representatives (Dewan Perwakilan Rakjat, DPR) and regional representatives. 100 of the 460 members of DPR would be directly appointed by the government, while the remaining seats were allocated to political organizations based on results of the general election. This mechanism ensures significant government control over legislative affairs, particularly the appointment of presidents.[97][98]
To participate in the elections, Suharto realised the need to align himself with a political party. After initially considering alignment with Sukarno's old party, thePNI, in 1969 Suharto decided to take over control of an obscure military-run federation of NGOs calledGolkar ("Functional Groups") and transform it into his electoral vehicle under the coordination of his right-hand manAli Murtopo. Thefirst general election was held on 3 July 1971 with ten participants; consisting ofGolkar, four Islamic parties, as well as five nationalist and Christian parties. Campaigning on a non-ideological platform of "development," and aided by official government support and subtle intimidation tactics,Golkar managed to secure 62.8% of the popular vote. TheMarch 1973 general session of newly elected MPR promptly elected Suharto to a second-term in office, with SultanHamengkubuwono IX as his vice president.[99]
"It is not the military strength of the Communists, but their fanaticism and ideology which is the principal element of their strength. To consider this, each country in the area needs an ideology of its own with which to counter the Communists. But a national ideology is not enough by itself. The well being of the people must be improved so that it strengthens and supports the national ideology."
On 5 January 1973, to allow better control, the government forced the four Islamic parties to merge intoPPP (Partai Persatuan Pembangunan, United Development Party) while the five non-Islamic parties were fused intoPDI (Partai Demokrasi Indonesia, Indonesian Democratic Party). The government ensured that these parties never developed effective opposition by controlling their leadership while establishing the "re-call" system to remove any outspoken legislators from their positions. Using this system, dubbed "Pancasila Democracy," Suharto was re-elected unopposed by the MPR in1978,1983,1988,1993, and1998.[99] Golkar won landslide majorities in the MPR at every election, ensuring that Suharto would be able to pass his agenda with virtually no opposition.
Suharto took great care to make it appear that his regime appeared to observe the tenets of the constitution. On paper, the president was the "mandatary of the MPR," responsible for implementing the "Broad Lines of State Policy" (GBHN) developed by the MPR. Near the end of each of his terms, Suharto delivered "accountability speeches" to the MPR that outlined the achievements of his administration and demonstrated how he had adhered to the GBHN. Additionally, the president had the power to issue regulations in lieu of law, but such regulations had to be approved by theHouse of People's Representatives (DPR) to remain in effect. In practice, however, Golkar's landslide majorities in the DPR and MPR made such approval a mere formality. Combined with the DPR's infrequent sessions (it usually sat for only one session per year), Suharto was able to effectively rule by decree for most of his tenure.
Suharto also proceeded with various social engineering projects designed to transform Indonesian society into a de-politicised "floating mass" supportive of the national mission of "development", a concept similar tocorporatism. The government formed various civil society groups to unite the populace in support of government programs. For instance, the government created theKORPRI (Korps Pegawai Republik Indonesia) in November 1971 as union of civil servants to ensure their loyalty, organized the FBSI (Federasi Buruh Seluruh Indonesia) as the only legal labour union in February 1973, and established theMUI in 1975 to control Islamic clerics.[101]
Suharto government's health-care programs (such as thePuskesmas program) increased life expectancy from 47 years (1966) to 67 years (1997) while cutting infant mortality rate by more than 60%. The government'sInpres program launched in 1973 resulted in primary school enrolment ratio reaching 90% by 1983 while almost eliminating the education gap between boys and girls. Sustained support for agriculture resulted in Indonesia achieving rice self-sufficiency by 1984, an unprecedented achievement which earned Suharto a gold medal from theFood and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) in November 1985.[104]
SBKRI from 1973, showing the portrait, fingerprints, and signature of the holder on the obverse
Additionally, Suharto relied on the military to ruthlessly maintain domestic security, organized by theKopkamtib (Operation Command for the Restoration of Security and Order) andBAKIN (State Intelligence Coordination Agency). To maintain strict control over the country, Suharto expanded the army's territorial system down to village-level, while military officers were appointed as regional heads under the rubric of theDwifungsi ("Dual Function") of the military. By 1969, 70% of Indonesia's provincial governors and more than half of its district chiefs were active military officers. Suharto authorisedOperasi Trisula which destroyed PKI remnants trying to organize a guerrilla base in theBlitar area in 1968 and ordered several military operations that ended the communist PGRS-Paraku insurgency inWest Kalimantan (1967–1972). Attacks on oil workers by the first incarnation ofFree Aceh Movement separatists underHasan di Tiro in 1977 led to the dispatch of small special forces detachments who quickly either killed or forced the movement's members to flee abroad.[105] Notably, in March 1981, Suharto authorised a successful special forces mission to endhijacking of a Garuda Indonesia flight by Islamic extremists atDon Mueang International Airport inBangkok.[106]
To promoteassimilation of the influentialChinese-Indonesians, the Suharto government passedseveral laws as part of the so-called "Basic Policy for the Solution of Chinese Problem", whereby only one Chinese-language publication (controlled by the Army) was allowed to continue, all Chinese cultural and religious expressions (including the display of Chinese characters) wereprohibited from public space, Chinese schools were seized and turned intoIndonesian-language public schools, and the ethnic-Chinese wereforced to take-up Indonesian-sounding names; creating a systematiccultural genocide. In 1978, the government began requiring aLetter of Proof of Citizenship of the Republic of Indonesia (Indonesian:Surat Bukti Kewarganegaraan Republik Indonesia, or SBKRI). Although the SBKRI was legally required for all citizens of foreign descent, in practice it was generally applied only to Chinese descent. This led todifficulties for Chinese Indonesians when enrolling in state universities, applying to be civil servants, or joining the military or police.[107]
Upon assuming power, Suharto's government adopted a policy of neutrality in theCold War but was nevertheless quietly aligned with the Western bloc (including Japan andSouth Korea) to secure support for Indonesia's economic recovery. Western countries, impressed by Suharto's strong anti-communist credentials, were quick to offer their support.Diplomatic relations with China were suspended in October 1967 due to suspicion of Chinese involvement in the30 September Movement (diplomatic relations were only restored in 1990). Due to Suharto's destruction of the PKI, theSoviet Union embargoed military sales to Indonesia. However, from 1967 to 1970 foreign ministerAdam Malik managed to secure several agreements to restructure massive debts incurred by Sukarno from the Soviet Union and other Eastern European communist states. Regionally, having ended confrontation withMalaysia in August 1966, Indonesia became a founding member of theAssociation of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) in August 1967. This organization is designed to establish a peaceful relationship between Southeast Asian countries free from conflicts such as the ongoingVietnam War.[16]
In 1974, the neighbouring colony ofPortuguese Timor descendedinto civil war after the withdrawal of Portuguese authority following theCarnation Revolution, whereby the left-wing populistFretilin (Portuguese:Frente Revolucionária de Timor-Leste Independente) emerged triumphant. With approval from Western countries (including from U.S. presidentGerald Ford and Australian prime ministerGough Whitlam during their visits to Indonesia), Suharto decided to intervene. He claimed the move was to prevent the establishment of a communist state. After an unsuccessful attempt of covert support to Timorese groupsUDT andAPODETI, Suharto authorised a full-scaleinvasion of the colony on 7 December 1975 followed with its official annexation as Indonesia's 27th province ofEast Timor in July 1976. The "encirclement and annihilation" campaigns of 1977–1979 broke the back of Fretilin control over the hinterlands, although continuing guerrilla resistance caused the government to maintain a strong military force in the half-island until 1999. An estimated minimum of 90,800 and maximum of 213,600 conflict-related deaths occurred in East Timor duringIndonesian rule (1974–1999); namely, 17,600–19,600 killings and 73,200 to 194,000 'excess' deaths from hunger and illness; Indonesian forces were responsible for about 70% of the violent deaths.[108]
Indonesia'sinvasion andoccupation ofEast Timor during Suharto's presidency resulted in at least 100,000 deaths.[109] To comply with theNew York Agreement of 1962 which required a plebiscite on the integration ofWest Irian into Indonesia before the end of 1969, the Suharto government begin organizing for a so-called "Act of Free Choice" scheduled for July–August 1969. The government sent RPKAD special forces underSarwo Edhie Wibowo which secured the surrender of several bands of former Dutch-organized militia (Papoea Vrijwilligers Korps / PVK) at large in the jungles since the Indonesian takeover in 1963 while sending Catholic volunteers underJusuf Wanandi to distribute consumer goods to promote pro-Indonesian sentiments. In March 1969, it was agreed that the plebiscite would be channelled via 1,025 tribal chiefs, citing the logistical challenge and political ignorance of the population. Using the above strategy, the plebiscite produced a unanimous decision for integration with Indonesia, which was duly noted by theUnited Nations General Assembly in November 1969.[110]
Real socio-economic progress sustained support for Suharto's regime across three decades. By 1996, Indonesia's poverty rate had dropped to around 11% compared with 45% in 1970. From 1966 to 1997, Indonesia recorded real GDP growth of 5.03% pa, pushing real GDP per capita upwards from US$806 to US$4,114. In 1966, the manufacturing sector made up less than 10% of GDP (mostly industries related to oil and agriculture). By 1997, manufacturing had risen to 25% of GDP, and 53% of exports consisted of manufactured products. The government invested in massive infrastructure development (notably the launching of a series ofPalapa telecommunication satellites); consequently, Indonesian infrastructure in the mid-1990s was considered at par with China. Suharto was keen to capitalize on such achievements to justify his presidency, and theparliament (MPR) on 9 March 1983 granted him the title of "Father of Development".[111]
In the early 1980s, Suharto government responded to the fall in oil exports due to the1980s oil glut by successfully shifting the basis of the economy to export-oriented labour-intensive manufacturing, made globally competitive by Indonesia's low wages and a series of currency devaluations. Industrialisation was mostly undertaken byChinese-Indonesian companies which evolved into large conglomerates dominating the nation's economy.[112]
In the late 1980s, the Suharto government decided to de-regulate the banking sector to encourage savings and providing a domestic source of financing required for growth. Suharto decreed the "October Package of 1988" (PAKTO 88) which eased requirements for establishing banks and extending credit; resulting in a 50% increase in the number of banks from 1989 to 1991. To promote savings, the government introduced theTABANAS program to the populace. TheJakarta Stock Exchange, re-opened in 1977, recorded a "bull run", due to a spree of domesticIPOs and an influx of foreign funds after the deregulation in 1990. The sudden availability of credit fuelled robust economic growth in the early 1990s, but the weak regulatory environment of the financial sector sowed the seeds of the catastrophic crisis in 1997, which eventually lead to the end of Suharto's presidency.[113]
In 1975, the state-owned oil company,Pertamina, defaulted on its foreign loans as a result of mismanagement and corruption under the leadership of Suharto's close ally,Ibnu Sutowo. The government bail-out of the company nearly doubled the national debt.[114][page needed]
Suharto's previously strong relationship with the student movement soured over the increasing authoritarianism and corruption of his administration. While many original leaders of the 1966 student movement (Angkatan '66) were successfully co-opted into the regime, Suharto was faced with large student demonstrations challenging the legitimacy of 1971 elections (Golput movement), the costly construction of theTaman Mini Indonesia Indah theme park (1972), the domination of foreign capitalists (Malari Incident of 1974), and the lack of term limits of Suharto's presidency (1978). The regime responded by imprisoning many student activists (such as future national figuresDorodjatun Kuntjoro-Jakti,Adnan Buyung Nasution, Hariman Siregar, andSyahrir), and even sending troops to occupy the campus of ITB (Bandung Institute of Technology) from January–March 1978. In April 1978, Suharto moved decisively by issuing a decree on "Normalisation of Campus Life" (NKK) which prohibited political activities on-campus not related to academic pursuits.[115][116]
On 15–16 January 1974, Suharto faced a significant challenge when violent riots broke out inJakarta during a visit by the Japanese prime ministerKakuei Tanaka. Students demonstrating against increasing dominance of Japanese investors were encouraged by GeneralSumitro, deputy commander of the armed forces. Sumitro was an ambitious general who disliked the strong influence of Suharto's Aspri inner circle. Suharto learned that the riots were engineered by Sumitro to destabilise the government, resulting in Sumitro's dismissal and forced retirement. This incident is referred to as theMalari incident (Malapetaka Lima Belas Januari, Disaster of 15 January). However, Suharto also disbandedAspri to appease popular dissent.[117] In 1980, fifty prominent political figures signed thePetition of Fifty, which criticised Suharto's use of Pancasila to silence his critics. Suharto refused to address the petitioners' concerns, and some of them were imprisoned with others having restrictions imposed on their movements.[118]
The growth of the economy coincided with the rapid expansion of corruption, collusion, and nepotism (Korupsi, Kolusi, dan Nepotisme / KKN). In the early 1980s, Suharto's children, particularlySiti Hardiyanti Rukmana ("Tutut"),Hutomo Mandala Putra ("Tommy"), and Bambang Trihatmodjo, had grown into greedy adults. Their companies were given lucrative government contracts and protected from market competition by monopolies. Examples include thetoll-expressway market which was monopolised by Tutut, the national car project monopolised by Bambang and Tommy, and even the cinema market, monopolised by21 Cineplex (owned by Suharto's cousin Sudwikatmono). The family is said to control about 36,000 km2 of real estate in Indonesia, including 100,000 m2 of prime office space in Jakarta and nearly 40% of the land in East Timor. Additionally, Suharto's family members received free shares in 1,251 of Indonesia's most lucrative domestic companies (mostly run by Suharto's ethnic-Chinese cronies), while foreign-owned companies were encouraged to establish "strategic partnerships" with Suharto family companies. Meanwhile, the myriad ofyayasans run by the Suharto family grew even larger, levying millions of dollars in "donations" from the public and private sectors each year.[29][119]
Suharto created a network of charitable organizations ("yayasan") run by the military and his family members, which extracted "donations" from domestic and foreign enterprises in exchange for necessary government support and permits. While some proceeds were used for charitable purposes, much of the money was recycled as a slush fund to reward political allies and to maintain support for the New Order.[16][120]
In 1997,Forbes magazine listed Suharto as the fourth richest person in the world with an individual net worth of $16 billion, despite drawing an annual salary in his last peak year of only $21,000. The Suharto family owned or controlled 3.6 million hectares of prime Indonesian land, an area comparable to all ofBelgium, and directly owned or had controlling equity in at least 564 companies, with no Indonesian economic sector untouched. With $100,000 of seed capital, Tommy Suharto got his start in 1984 at age 22. Within ten weeks hisHumpuss Group already had twenty subsidiaries, which soon ballooned to sixty. A year later he acquired Perta Oil Marketing, a subsidiary of the state oil companyPertamina, instantly making him a major crude-oil broker and transporter. Perta generated profits of $1 million per month. Most of Indonesia's toll roads were built and operated by the stateowned firmJasa Marga, with untold markups and opportunities for skimming and theft for oligarchs as the projects were completed. In 1989, Suharto issued a decree granting his daughter Tutut 75% of profits from all toll roads her group operated jointly with Jasa Marga, driving costs up still further. Bambang positioned his group as a partner of major foreign power companies and forced the state-run power company,PLN, to buy electricity at inflated rates. According to one estimate from the 24 May 1999 cover story in the international issue ofTime magazine, the total wealth amassed by the Suharto family over three decades in power was $73.24 billion. Setting aside $9 billion earned from interest on deposits, three-fourths of this wealth was derived from grabbing the country's oil, gas, and mining resources, or muscling in on state corporations and major government contracts. The entrepreneurial value added from these Suharto family companies was, by all accounts, almost zero.[121]
In early 2004, the German anti-corruption NGO Transparency International released a list of what it believed to be the ten most self-enriching leaders in the previous two decades; in order of amount allegedly stolen in USD, the highest-ranking of these was Suharto and his family who are alleged to have embezzled $15 billion – $35 billion.[122]
By the 1980s, Suharto's grip on power was maintained by the emasculation of civil society, engineered elections, and use of the military's coercive powers. Upon his retirement from the military in June 1976, Suharto undertook a re-organization of the armed forces that concentrated power away from commanders to the president. In March 1983, he appointed GeneralLeonardus Benjamin Moerdani as head of the armed forces who adopted a hard-line approach on elements who challenged the administration. As a Roman Catholic, he was not a political threat to Suharto.[123] From 1983 to 1985, army squads killed up to 10,000 suspected criminals in response to a spike in the crime rate (see "Petrus killings"). Suharto's imposition of Pancasila as the sole ideology caused protests from conservative Islamic groups who considered Islamic law to be above all other conceptions.[124]
TheTanjung Priok massacre saw the army kill up to 100 conservative Muslim protesters in September 1984. A retaliatory series of small bombings, including the bombing ofBorobudur, led to arrests of hundreds of conservative Islamic activists, including future parliamentary leader AM Fatwa andAbu Bakar Bashir (later leader ofJemaah Islamiyah). Attacks on police by a resurgentFree Aceh Movement in 1989 led to a military operation which killed 2,000 people and ended the insurgency by 1992. In 1984, the Suharto government sought increased control over the press by issuing a law requiring all media to possess a press operating license (Surat Izin Usaha Penerbitan Pers, SIUPP) which could be revoked at any time by Ministry of Information.[124]
With the end of communism and theCold War, Suharto's human rights record came under greater international scrutiny, particularly following the 1991Santa Cruz massacre in East Timor. Suharto was elected as head of theNon-Aligned Movement in 1992, while Indonesia became a founding member ofAPEC in 1989 and host to theBogor APEC Summit in 1994.[125] Domestically, the business dealings of Suharto's family created discontent among the military who lost access to power and lucrative rent-seeking opportunities. The March 1988MPR session, military legislators attempted to pressure Suharto by unsuccessfully seeking to block the nomination ofSudharmono, a Suharto-loyalist, as vice-president. Moerdani's criticism of the Suharto family's corruption saw the president dismiss him from the position of military chief. Suharto proceeded to slowly "de-militarise" his regime; he dissolved the powerfulKopkamtib in September 1988 and ensured key military positions were held by loyalists.[126]
In an attempt to diversify his power base away from the military, Suharto began courting support from Islamic elements. He undertook a much-publicisedhajj pilgrimage in 1991, took up the name of Haji Mohammad Suharto, and promoted Islamic values and the careers of Islamic-oriented generals. To win support from the nascent Muslim business community who resented the dominance of Chinese-Indonesian conglomerates, Suharto formed theIndonesian Association of Muslim Intellectuals (ICMI) in November 1990, which was led by his protégéB.J. Habibie, the Minister for Research and Technology since 1978. During this period, race riots against ethnic-Chinese begin to occur quite regularly, beginning with the April 1994 riot inMedan.[127] By the 1990s, Suharto's government came to be dominated by civilian politicians such asHabibie,Harmoko,Ginandjar Kartasasmita, andAkbar Tanjung, who owed their position solely to Suharto. As a sign of Habibie's growing clout, when two prominent Indonesian magazines and a tabloid newspaper reported on criticism over Habibie's purchase of almost the entire fleet of the disbandedEast German Navy in 1993 (most of the vessels were of scrap-value), the Ministry of Information ordered the offending publications be closed down on 21 June 1994.[128] In 1993, thePurna Bhakti Pertiwi Museum was opened on the initiative of Tien Suharto. It houses and displays Suharto collections including artworks and souvenirs, received from various world leaders and Indonesian people.
In the 1990s, elements within the growing Indonesian middle class created by Suharto's economic development were becoming restless with hisautocracy and the corruption of his children, fuelling demands for "Reformasi" (reform) of the almost 30-year-old New Order government. A significant element of the middle class had no memory of the events leading up to Suharto's rise to power. By 1996, Sukarno's daughter,Megawati Sukarnoputri, chairwoman of the normally compliantPDI, was becoming an opposition figure for this growing discontent. In response, Suharto backed a co-opted faction of PDI led bySuryadi, which ousted Megawati as PDI leader. On 27 July 1996,an attack by soldiers and hired thugs led by Lieutenant-GeneralSutiyoso on demonstrating Megawati supporters in Jakarta resulted in fatal riots and looting. This incident was followed by the arrest of 200 democracy activists, 23 of whom were kidnapped, and some killed, by army squads led by Suharto's son-in-law, Major-GeneralPrabowo Subianto.[129] In 1995, Suharto released a special 1,54 troy ouncegold coinworth of 850,000 rupiah with his face on one side of the coin in the celebration of 50th anniversary ofIndonesian Independence. On 5 October 1997, he awarded himself and generalsSudirman andAbdul Haris Nasution the honorary rank of five-star "grand general."[130]
Indonesia was the country hardest hit by the1997 Asian financial crisis. From mid-1997 there were large capital outflows and against the US dollar. Due to poor bank lending practices, many Indonesian companies borrowed cheaper US dollar loans while their income is mainly in Indonesian rupiah. The weakening rupiah spurred panic buying of US dollar by these companies, causing theIndonesian rupiah to drop in value from a pre-crisis level of Rp. 2,600 to a low point in early 1998 of around Rp. 17,000. Consequently, many companies were bankrupted and the economy shrank by 13.7%, leading to sharp increases in unemployment and poverty across the country.[131]
Efforts by thecentral bank to defend the rupiah proved futile and only drained the country's dollar reserves. In exchange for US$43 billion in liquidity aid, between October 1997 and the following April, Suharto signed three letters of intent with theInternational Monetary Fund (IMF) for an economic reform process. In January 1998, the government was forced to provide emergency liquidity assistance (BLBI), issue blanket guarantees for bank deposits and set-up theIndonesian Bank Restructuring Agency to take over management of troubled banks to prevent the collapse of the financial system. Among the steps taken on IMF recommendation, the government raised an interest rate up to 70% pa in February 1998, which further worsened the contraction of the economy. In December 1997, Suharto did not attend an ASEAN presidents' summit for the first time, which was later revealed to be due to a minor stroke, creating speculation about his health and the immediate future of his presidency. In mid-December, as the crisis swept through Indonesia and an estimated $150 billion of capital was being withdrawn from the country, he appeared at a press conference to re-assert his authority and to urge people to trust the government and the collapsing rupiah.[132]
However, his attempts to re-instil confidence had little effect. Evidence suggested that his family and associates were being spared the most stringent requirements of the IMF reform process, further undermining confidence in the economy and his leadership.[124] The economic meltdown was accompanied by increasing political tension. Anti-Chinese riots occurred inSitubondo (1996),Tasikmalaya (1996),Banjarmasin (1997), andMakassar (1997); violent ethnic clashes broke out between theDayak andMadurese settlers inCentral Kalimantan in 1997.Golkar won the rigged1997 election, and in March 1998, Suharto was voted unanimously to another five-year term. He nominated his protégéB. J. Habibie as vice president then stacking thecabinet with his own family and business associates, including his eldest daughterTutut as Minister of Social Affairs. The appointments and the government's unrealistic 1998 budget created further currency instability,[133] rumours, and panic; which led to a run on stores and pushed up prices.[134] The government increased the fuel prices further by 70% in May 1998, which triggered another wave of riots inMedan.[135]
Suharto reading his resignation speech at Merdeka Palace on 21 May 1998. His vice president and successor,B. J. Habibie, stands on his left hand side.
With Suharto increasingly seen as the source of the country's mounting economic and political crises, prominent political figures, including Muslim politicianAmien Rais, spoke out against his presidency, and in January 1998 university students began organizing nationwide demonstrations.[136] The crisis climaxed while Suharto was on a state visit to Egypt on 12 May 1998, when security forceskilled four demonstrators from Jakarta'sTrisakti University.Rioting and looting across Jakarta and other cities over the following days destroyed thousands of buildings and killed over 1,000 people. Ethnic Chinese and their businesses were particular targets in the violence. Theories on the origin of the violence include rivalry between military chief GeneralWiranto andArmy Strategic Commander Lt. Gen.Prabowo Subianto, and the suggestion of deliberate provocation by Suharto to divert blame for the crisis to the ethnic-Chinese and discredit the student movement.[137]
On 16 May, tens of thousands of university students demanded Suharto's resignation, and occupied the grounds and roof ofthe parliament building. Upon Suharto's return to Jakarta, he offered to resign in 2003 and to reshuffle his cabinet. These efforts failed when his political allies deserted him by refusing to join the proposed new cabinet. According to Wiranto, on 18 May, Suharto issued a decree which provided authority to him to take any measures to restore security; however, Wiranto decided not to enforce the decree to prevent conflict with the population.[138] On 21 May 1998, Suharto announced his resignation, upon which vice-president Habibie assumed the presidency in accordance with the constitution.[16][139][140] Documents from the United States Department of State indicate that the Clinton Administration sought to maintain close ties with the Indonesian military in the aftermath of Suharto's fall from power.[141]
After resigning from the presidency, Suharto became a recluse in his family's compound in theMenteng area of Jakarta, protected by soldiers and rarely making public appearances. Suharto's family spent much of their time fending off corruption investigations. However, Suharto himself was protected from grave prosecution by politicians who owed their positions to the former president, as indicated in the leaked telephone conversation between PresidentHabibie and attorney-general Andi Muhammad Ghalib in February 1999.[142] In May 1999,Time Asia estimated Suharto's family fortune at US$15 billion in cash,shares, corporate assets, real estate, jewellery and fine art. Suharto sued the magazine seeking more than US$27 billion in damages forlibel over the article.[143] On 10 September 2007, Indonesia's Supreme Court awarded Suhartodamages againstTime Asiamagazine, ordering it to pay him one trillionrupiah ($128.59 million). The High Court reversed thejudgment of anappellate court andCentral Jakartadistrict court (made in 2000 and 2001).[citation needed]
Suharto was placed highest onTransparency International's list of corrupt leaders with alleged misappropriation of between US$15–35 billion during his 32-year presidency.[29][119] On 29 May 2000, Suharto was placed underhouse arrest when Indonesian authorities began to investigate the corruption during his presidency. In July 2000, it was announced that he was to be accused of embezzling US$571 million of government donations to one of several foundations under his control and then using the money to finance family investments. However, in September court-appointed doctors announced that he could not stand trial because of his declining health. State prosecutors tried again in 2002, but then doctors cited an unspecified brain disease. On 26 March 2008, a civil court judge acquitted Suharto of corruption but ordered his charitable foundation, Supersemar, to pay US$110 million (£55 million).[144]
In 2002, Suharto's sonTommy Suharto was sentenced to 15 years' jail for ordering the killing of a judge (who had previously convicted him of corruption), illegal weapons possession, and fleeing justice. In 2006, he was paroled on "conditional release".[145] In 2003, Suharto's half-brotherProbosutedjo was tried and convicted for corruption and the loss of $10 million from the Indonesian state. He was sentenced to four years in jail. He later won a reduction of his sentence to two years, initiating a probe by theCorruption Eradication Commission into the alleged scandal of the "judicial mafia" which uncovered offers of $600,000 to various judges. Probosutedjo confessed to the scheme in October 2005, leading to the arrest of his lawyers. His full four-year term was reinstated.[146] After a brief standoff at a hospital, in which he was reportedly protected by a group of police officers, he was arrested on 30 November 2005.[147][148] On 9 July 2007, Indonesian prosecutors filed a civil lawsuit against Suharto, to recover state funds ($440 million or £219 million, which allegedly disappeared from a scholarship fund, and a further $1.1 billion in damages).[149]
After resigning from the presidency, Suharto was hospitalised repeatedly forstroke, heart, and intestinal problems. His declining health hindered attempts to prosecute him as his lawyers successfully claimed that his condition rendered him unfit for trial. Moreover, there was little support within Indonesia for any attempts to prosecute him. In 2006, Attorney General Abdurrahman announced that a team of twenty doctors would be asked to evaluate Suharto's health and fitness for trial. One physician, Brigadier-General Dr Marjo Subiandono, stated his doubts about by noting that "[Suharto] has two permanent cerebral defects."[150] In a laterFinancial Times report, Attorney General Abdurrahman discussed the re-examination, and called it part of a "last opportunity" to prosecute Suharto criminally. Attorney General Abdurrahman left open the possibility of filing suit against the Suharto estate.[151]
On 4 January 2008, Suharto was taken to thePertamina Central Hospital, Jakarta with complications arising from poor health, swelling of limbs and stomach, and partial renal failure.[152] His health fluctuated for several weeks but progressively worsened withanaemia and lowblood pressure due to heart and kidney complications, internal bleeding, fluid on his lungs, and blood in his faeces and urine which caused ahaemoglobin drop.[153] On 23 January, Suharto's health worsened further, as asepsis infection spread through his body.[154] His family consented to the removal of life support machines if his condition did not improve, and he died on 27 January at 1:09 pm.[155][156][2]
Minutes after his death, then-Indonesian PresidentSusilo Bambang Yudhoyono held a news conference declaring Suharto as one of Indonesia's "best sons" and invited the country to give the highest respect and honour to the ex-president.[157] Suharto's body was taken from Jakarta to theAstana Giribangun mausoleum complex inKaranganyar Regency, near the Central Java city ofSolo. He was buried alongside his late wife in a state military funeral with full honours, with theKopassus elite forces andKOSTRAD commandos as the honour guard and pallbearers and Commander of Group II Kopassus Surakarta Lt. Colonel Asep Subarkah.[158] In attendance were President Yudhoyono, who presided over the ceremony, as well as the vice-president, government ministers, and armed forces chiefs of staff. Tens of thousands of people lined the streets to see the convoy.[159] Condolences were offered by many regional heads of state. President Yudhoyono that afternoon declared a week of official mourning starting from Suharto's day of death.[160] During this period, all flags of Indonesia were flown athalf-mast.
Starting in the early 2010s, theJavanese language slogan “Piye kabare, penak jamanku to?” (English:How are you doing? It was better in my time, right?) featuring pictures of Suharto was heavily distributed around Indonesia in many forms, such as stickers, t-shirts and on the internet. The slogan can also be found on political campaign billboards and affixed to public transportation, such as minibuses as well as trucks and pedicabs.[161]
Surveys of Indonesians done in 2011 and 2018 have found Suharto to be the most successful in carrying out his duties as president.[162]
On 25 September 2024, in one of its last acts for the 2019–2024 period, thePeople's Consultative Assembly repealed Clause 4 of MPR Resolution No. XI/MPR/1998, which had accused Suharto and his cronies of acts of corruption, collusion, and nepotism (Clause 4 specifically named Suharto). The stated reason for this was because Suharto was never put on trial for these accusations before his death in 2008. This move has reignited debate as to whether Suharto should be awarded the National Hero status.[163]
Suharto's childhood house in Kemusuk is currently a memorial museum, calledMemorial Jenderal Besar HM Soeharto. A statue of him stands in front of the museum. It was built by Probosutedjo and was inaugurated in 2013.[164]
Istiklal Mosque inSarajevo was initiated by Suharto as a gift for the people of Bosnia and Herzegovina, to replace the hundreds of mosques destroyed during theBosnian War. Suharto famously visited Sarajevo in 1995 to help mediate the ongoing conflict (even though a UN-owned aircraft that passed through Bosnia was shot down two days earlier). The mosque is sometimes referred by locals as theSuharto Mosque.[166]
Suharto in full military uniform with some of his decorations, 1997
As an officer in theIndonesian Army (1940–1974), and then as president of Indonesia (1967–1998), he received several civilian and militaryStar Decorations from Indonesia, namely:[167]
^On 11 March 1966,Sukarno transferred key presidential powers to Suharto in a letter of authority known asSupersemar. On 20 February 1967, Sukarno surrendered his powers, but he was not formally relieved of his presidential title by theprovisional parliament (MPRS) until 12 March 1967.
^Mappapa, Pasti Liberti (30 September 2019)."Sekondan Soeharto di Pusaran G30S/PKI".detikNews (in Indonesian). Retrieved2023-06-16.Latief sendiri mengaku anak buah langsung Soeharto sejak bertugas di Yogyakarta.Nomor Registrasi Pokok (NRP) keduanya berurutan. "NRP saya 10685, sedangkan NRP Pak Harto 10684, jadi saya selalu menempel di belakangnya.
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^Steele, Janet (2005).Wars Within: The Story of Tempo, an Independent Magazine in Soeharto's Indonesia (First ed.). Equinox Publishing. pp. 234–235.ISBN9793780088.
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