Asugar substitute orartificial sweetener[2] is afood additive that provides asweetness like that ofsugar while containing significantly lessfood energy than sugar-basedsweeteners, making it azero-calorie (non-nutritive)[3] orlow-calorie sweetener. Artificial sweeteners may be derived from plantextracts or processed bychemical synthesis. Sugar substitute products are commercially available in various forms, such as small pills, powders and packets.
Common sugar substitutes includeaspartame,monk fruit extract,saccharin,sucralose,stevia,acesulfame potassium (ace-K) andcyclamate. These sweeteners are a fundamental ingredient indiet drinks to sweeten them without addingcalories. Additionally,sugar alcohols such aserythritol,xylitol andsorbitol are derived from sugars.
No links have been found between approved artificial sweeteners and cancer in humans.[4] Reviews and dietetic professionals have concluded that moderate use of non-nutritive sweeteners as a relatively safe replacement for sugars that can help limit energy intake and assist with managingblood glucose andweight.
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Artificial sweeteners may be derived through manufacturing of plantextracts or processed bychemical synthesis.
High-intensity sweeteners—one type of sugar substitute—are compounds with many times thesweetness ofsucrose (common table sugar). As a result, much less sweetener is required and energy contribution is often negligible. The sensation of sweetness caused by these compounds is sometimes notably different from sucrose, so they are often used in complex mixtures that achieve the most intense sweet sensation.
InNorth America, common sugar substitutes includeaspartame,monk fruit extract,saccharin,sucralose andstevia.Cyclamate is prohibited from being used as a sweetener within the United States, but is allowed in other parts of the world.[5]
Sorbitol,xylitol andlactitol are examples ofsugar alcohols (also known as polyols). These are, in general, less sweet than sucrose but have similar bulk properties and can be used in a wide range of food products. Sometimes the sweetness profile is fine-tuned by mixing with high-intensity sweeteners.
Allulose is a sweetener in the sugar family, with a chemical structure similar to fructose. It is naturally found in figs, maple syrup and some fruit. While it comes from the same family as other sugars, it does not substantially metabolize as sugar in the body.[6] The FDA recognizes that allulose does not act like sugar, and as of 2019, no longer requires it to be listed with sugars on U.S. nutrition labels.[7] Allulose is about 70% as sweet as sugar, which is why it is sometimes combined with high-intensity sweeteners to make sugar substitutes.[8]
Acesulfame potassium (Ace-K) is 200 times sweeter than sucrose (common sugar), as sweet as aspartame, about two-thirds as sweet as saccharin, and one-third as sweet as sucralose. Like saccharin, it has a slightly bitteraftertaste, especially at high concentrations.Kraft Foods has patented the use ofsodium ferulate to mask acesulfame's aftertaste. Acesulfame potassium is often blended with other sweeteners (usually aspartame or sucralose), which give a more sucrose-like taste, whereby each sweetener masks the other's aftertaste and also exhibits a synergistic effect in which the blend is sweeter than its components.
Unlike aspartame, acesulfame potassium is stable under heat, even under moderately acidic or basic conditions, allowing it to be used as a food additive in baking or in products that require a long shelf life. In carbonated drinks, it is almost always used in conjunction with another sweetener, such as aspartame or sucralose. It is also used as a sweetener in protein shakes and pharmaceutical products, especially chewable and liquid medications, where it can make the active ingredients more palatable.
Aspartame was discovered in 1965 by James M. Schlatter at theG.D. Searle company. He was working on an anti-ulcer drug and accidentally spilled some aspartame on his hand. When he licked his finger, he noticed that it had a sweet taste.Torunn Atteraas Garin oversaw the development of aspartame as an artificial sweetener. It is an odorless, white crystalline powder that is derived from the two amino acidsaspartic acid andphenylalanine. It is about 180–200 times sweeter than sugar,[9][10] and can be used as a tabletop sweetener or in frozen desserts, gelatins,beverages andchewing gum. When cooked or stored at high temperatures, aspartame breaks down into its constituent amino acids. This makes aspartame undesirable as a baking sweetener. It is more stable in somewhat acidic conditions, such as in soft drinks. Though it does not have a bitter aftertaste like saccharin, it may not taste exactly like sugar. When eaten, aspartame is metabolized into its originalamino acids. Because it is so intensely sweet, relatively little of it is needed to sweeten a food product, and is thus useful for reducing the number of calories in a product.
The safety of aspartame has been studied extensively since its discovery with research that includes animal studies, clinical and epidemiological research, and postmarketing surveillance,[11] with aspartame being a rigorously tested food ingredient.[12] Although aspartame has been subject toclaims against its safety,[13] multiple authoritative reviews have found it to be safe for consumption at typical levels used in food manufacturing.[11][13][14][15] Aspartame has been deemed safe for human consumption by over 100 regulatory agencies in their respective countries,[15] including the UKFood Standards Agency,[9] theEuropean Food Safety Authority (EFSA)[10] andHealth Canada.[16]
In the United States, theFood and Drug Administration banned the sale of cyclamate in 1969 after lab tests in rats involving a 10:1 mixture of cyclamate andsaccharin (at levels comparable to humans ingesting 550 cans of diet soda per day) causedbladder cancer.[17] This information, however, is regarded as "weak" evidence ofcarcinogenic activity,[18] and cyclamate remains in common use in many parts of the world, includingCanada, theEuropean Union andRussia.[19][20]
Mogrosides, extracted from monk fruit (which is commonly also calledluǒ hán guò), are recognized as safe for human consumption and are used in commercial products worldwide.[21][22] As of 2017, it is not a permitted sweetener in the European Union,[23] although it is allowed as a flavor at concentrations where it does not function as a sweetener.[22] In 2017, a Chinese company requested a scientific review of its mogroside product by theEuropean Food Safety Authority.[24] It is the basis ofMcNeil Nutritionals' tabletop sweetener Nectresse in the United States and Norbu Sweetener in Australia.[25]
Apart fromsugar of lead (used as a sweetener in ancient through medieval times before the toxicity of lead was known), saccharin was the first artificial sweetener and was originally synthesized in 1879 by Remsen and Fahlberg. Its sweet taste was discovered by accident. It had been created in an experiment with toluene derivatives. A process for the creation of saccharin fromphthalic anhydride was developed in 1950, and, currently, saccharin is created by this process as well as the original process by which it was discovered. It is 300 to 500 times sweeter than sucrose and is often used to improve the taste of toothpastes, dietary foods and dietary beverages. The bitter aftertaste of saccharin is often minimized by blending it with other sweeteners.
Fear about saccharin increased when a 1960 study showed that high levels of saccharin may causebladder cancer in laboratory rats. In 1977,Canada banned saccharin as a result of the animal research. In the United States, the FDA considered banning saccharin in 1977, but Congress stepped in and placed a moratorium on such a ban. The moratorium required a warning label and also mandated further study of saccharin safety.
Subsequently, it was discovered that saccharin causes cancer in male rats by a mechanism not found in humans. At high doses, saccharin causes a precipitate to form in rat urine. This precipitate damages the cells lining the bladder (urinary bladder urothelialcytotoxicity) and atumor forms when the cells regenerate (regenerative hyperplasia). According to theInternational Agency for Research on Cancer, part of theWorld Health Organization, "This mechanism is not relevant to humans because of critical interspecies differences in urine composition".[26]
In 2001, the United States repealed the warning label requirement, while the threat of an FDA ban had already been lifted in 1991. Most other countries also permit saccharin, but restrict the levels of use, while other countries have outright banned it.
The EPA has removed saccharin and its salts from their list of hazardous constituents and commercial chemical products. In a 14 December 2010 release, the EPA stated that saccharin is no longer considered a potential hazard to human health.
Stevia is a natural non-caloric sweetener derived from theStevia rebaudiana plant, and is manufactured as a sweetener.[27] It is indigenous toSouth America, and has historically been used in Japanese food products, although it is now common internationally.[27] In 1987, the FDA issued a ban on stevia because it had not been approved as a food additive, although it continued to be available as adietary supplement.[28] After being provided with sufficient scientific data demonstrating safety of using stevia as a manufactured sweetener, from companies such asCargill andCoca-Cola, the FDA gave a "no objection" status asgenerally recognized as safe (GRAS) in December 2008 to Cargill for its stevia product,Truvia, for use of the refined stevia extracts as a blend ofrebaudioside A anderythritol.[29][30][31] In Australia, the brand Vitarium uses Natvia, a stevia sweetener, in a range of sugar-free children's milk mixes.[32]
In August 2019, the FDA placed an import alert on stevia leaves and crude extracts—which do not have GRAS status—and on foods or dietary supplements containing them, citing concerns about safety and potential fortoxicity.[33]
The world's most commonly used artificial sweetener,[19] sucralose is a chlorinated sugar that is about 600 times sweeter than sugar. It is produced from sucrose when three chlorine atoms replace threehydroxyl groups. It is used inbeverages,frozen desserts,chewing gum,baked goods and other foods. Unlike other artificial sweeteners, it is stable when heated and can therefore be used in baked and fried goods. Discovered in 1976, the FDA approved sucralose for use in 1998.[34]
Most of the controversy surroundingSplenda, a sucralose sweetener, is focused not on safety but on its marketing. It has been marketed with the slogan, "Splenda is made from sugar, so it tastes like sugar." Sucralose is prepared from either of two sugars, sucrose orraffinose. With either base sugar, processing replaces three oxygen-hydrogen groups in the sugar molecule with three chlorine atoms.[35]The "Truth About Splenda" website was created in 2005 by theSugar Association, an organization representingsugar beet andsugar cane farmers in the United States,[36] to provide its view of sucralose. In December 2004, five separate false-advertising claims were filed by the Sugar Association against Splenda manufacturersMerisant andMcNeil Nutritionals for claims made about Splenda related to the slogan, "Made from sugar, so it tastes like sugar." French courts ordered the slogan to no longer be used in France, while in the U.S., the case came to an undisclosed settlement during the trial.[35]
There are few safety concerns pertaining to sucralose[37] and the way sucralose ismetabolized suggests a reduced risk of toxicity. For example, sucralose is extremely insoluble in fat and, thus, does not accumulate in fatty tissues; sucralose also does not break down and willdechlorinate only under conditions that are not found during regular digestion (i.e., high heat applied to the powder form of the molecule).[38] Only about 15% of sucralose is absorbed by the body and most of it passes out of the body unchanged.[38]
In 2017, sucralose was the most common sugar substitute used in the manufacture of foods and beverages; it had 30% of the global market, which was projected to be valued at $2.8 billion by 2021.[19]
Sugar alcohols, orpolyols, are sweetening and bulking ingredients used in the manufacturing of foods and beverages, particularly sugar-free candies, cookies andchewing gums.[39][40] As a sugar substitute, they typically are less-sweet and supply fewer calories (about a half to one-third fewer calories) than sugar. They are converted to glucose slowly, and do not spike increases inblood glucose.[39][40][41]
Sorbitol,xylitol,mannitol,erythritol andlactitol are examples of sugar alcohols.[40] These are, in general, less sweet than sucrose, but have similar bulk properties and can be used in a wide range of food products.[40] The sweetness profile may be altered during manufacturing by mixing with high-intensity sweeteners.
Sugar alcohols are carbohydrates with a biochemical structure partially matching the structures of sugar and alcohol, although not containingethanol.[40][42] They are not entirely metabolized by the human body.[42] The unabsorbed sugar alcohols may cause bloating anddiarrhea due to theirosmotic effect, if consumed in sufficient amounts.[43] They are found commonly in small quantities in some fruits and vegetables, and are commercially manufactured from different carbohydrates andstarch.[40][42][44]
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The majority of sugar substitutes approved for food use are artificially synthesized compounds. However, some bulkplant-derived sugar substitutes are known, includingsorbitol,xylitol andlactitol. As it is not commercially profitable to extract these products from fruits and vegetables, they are produced bycatalytichydrogenation of the appropriate reducing sugar. For example,xylose is converted to xylitol,lactose to lactitol, andglucose to sorbitol.
Sugar substitutes are used instead of sugar for a number of reasons, including:
Carbohydrates and sugars usually adhere to thetooth enamel, where bacteria feed upon them and quickly multiply.[45] The bacteria convert the sugar to acids that decay the teeth. Sugar substitutes, unlike sugar, do not erode teeth as they are not fermented by themicroflora of thedental plaque. A sweetener that may benefit dental health isxylitol, which tends to prevent bacteria from adhering to the tooth surface, thus preventing plaque formation and eventuallytooth decay. ACochrane review, however, found only low-quality evidence that xylitol in a variety of dental products actually has any benefit in preventing tooth decay in adults and children.[45]
Sugar substitutes are a fundamental ingredient indiet drinks to sweeten them without addingcalories. Additionally,sugar alcohols such aserythritol,xylitol andsorbitol are derived from sugars. In the United States, six high-intensity sugar substitutes have been approved for use:aspartame,sucralose,neotame,acesulfame potassium (Ace-K),saccharin andadvantame.[5]Food additives must be approved by the FDA,[5] and sweeteners must be proven as safe via submission by a manufacturer of aGRAS document.[46] The conclusions about GRAS are based on a detailed review of a large body of information, including rigorous toxicological and clinical studies.[46] GRAS notices exist for two plant-based, high-intensity sweeteners: steviol glycosides obtained from stevia leaves (Stevia rebaudiana) andextracts fromSiraitia grosvenorii, also calledluo han guo or monk fruit.[5]
Many sugar substitutes are cheaper than sugar in the final food formulation. Sugar substitutes are often lower in total cost because of their longshelf life and high sweetening intensity. This allows sugar substitutes to be used in products that will not perish after a short period of time.[50]
In the United States, theFDA provides guidance for manufacturers and consumers about the daily limits for consuming high-intensity sweeteners, a measure calledacceptable daily intake (ADI).[5] During their premarket review for all of the high-intensity sweeteners approved as food additives, the FDA established an ADI defined as an amount in milligrams perkilogram of body weight per day (mg/kg bw/d), indicating that a high-intensity sweetener does not cause safety concerns if estimated daily intakes are lower than the ADI.[51] The FDA states: "An ADI is the amount of a substance that is considered safe to consume each day over the course of a person's lifetime." For stevia (specifically, steviol glycosides), an ADI was not derived by the FDA, but by the Joint Food and Agricultural Organization/World Health Organization Expert Committee on Food Additives, whereas an ADI has not been determined for monk fruit.[51]
For the sweeteners approved as food additives, the ADIs in milligrams per kilogram of body weight per day are:[51]
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If the sucrose, or other sugar, that is replaced has contributed to the texture of the product, then a bulking agent is often also needed. This may be seen insoft drinks orsweet teas that are labeled as "diet" or "light" that contain artificial sweeteners and often have notably differentmouthfeel, or in table sugar replacements that mixmaltodextrins with an intense sweetener to achieve satisfactory texture sensation.
The FDA has published estimates of sweetness intensity, called amultiplier of sweetness intensity (MSI) as compared to table sugar.
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The sweetness levels and energy densities are in comparison to those of sucrose.
| Name | Relative sweetness to sucrose by weight | Sweetness by food energy | Energy density | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Brazzein | 1250 | Protein | ||
| Curculin | 1250 | Protein; also changes the taste of water and sour solutions to sweet | ||
| Erythritol | 0.65 | 14 | 0.05 | |
| Fructooligosaccharide | 0.4 | |||
| Glycyrrhizin | 40 | |||
| Glycerol | 0.6 | 0.55 | 1.075 | E422 |
| Hydrogenated starch hydrolysates | 0.65 | 0.85 | 0.75 | |
| Inulin | 0.1 | |||
| Isomalt | 0.55 | 1.1 | 0.5 | E953 |
| Isomaltooligosaccharide | 0.5 | |||
| Isomaltulose | 0.5 | |||
| Lactitol | 0.4 | 0.8 | 0.5 | E966 |
| Mogroside mix | 300 | |||
| Mabinlin | 100 | Protein | ||
| Maltitol | 0.825 | 1.7 | 0.525 | E965 |
| Maltodextrin | 0.15 | |||
| Mannitol | 0.5 | 1.2 | 0.4 | E421 |
| Miraculin | A protein that does not taste sweet by itself but modifies taste receptors to make sour foods taste sweet temporarily | |||
| Monatin | 3,000 | Sweetener isolated from the plantSclerochiton ilicifolius | ||
| Monellin | 1,400 | Sweetening protein inserendipity berries | ||
| Osladin | 500 | |||
| Pentadin | 500 | Protein | ||
| Polydextrose | 0.1 | |||
| Psicose | 0.7 | |||
| Sorbitol | 0.6 | 0.9 | 0.65 | Sugar alcohol, E420 |
| Stevia | 250 | Extracts known as rebiana,rebaudioside A, asteviol glycoside; commercial products:Truvia,PureVia,Stevia In The Raw | ||
| Tagatose | 0.92 | 2.4 | 0.38 | Monosaccharide |
| Thaumatin | 2,000 | Protein; E957 | ||
| Xylitol | 1.0 | 1.7 | 0.6 | E967 |
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| Name | Relative sweetness to sucrose by weight | Trade name | Approval | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Acesulfame potassium | 200[51] | Nutrinova | FDA 1988 | E950Hyet Sweet |
| Advantame | 20,000[51] | FDA 2014 | E969 | |
| Alitame | 2,000 | approved in Mexico, Australia, New Zealand and China | Pfizer | |
| Aspartame | 200[51] | NutraSweet,Equal | FDA 1981, EU-wide 1994 | E951Hyet Sweet |
| Salt of aspartame-acesulfame | 350 | Twinsweet | E962 | |
| Carrelame | 200,000 | |||
| Sodium cyclamate | 40 | FDA banned 1969, approved in EU and Canada | E952, Abbott | |
| Dulcin | 250 | FDA banned 1950 | ||
| Glucin | 300 | |||
| Lugduname | 220,000–300,000 | |||
| Neohesperidin dihydrochalcone | 1650 | EU 1994 | E959 | |
| Neotame | 7,000–13,000[51] | NutraSweet | FDA 2002 | E961 |
| P-4000 | 4,000 | FDA banned 1950 | ||
| Saccharin | 200–700[51] | Sweet'N Low | FDA 1958, Canada 2014 | E954 |
| Sucralose | 600[51] | Kaltame,Splenda | Canada 1991, FDA 1998, EU 2004 | E955,Tate & Lyle |
| Name | Relative sweetness to sucrose by weight | Food energy (kcal/g) | Sweetness per food energy, relative to sucrose | Food energy for equal sweetness, relative to sucrose |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Arabitol | 0.7 | 0.2 | 14 | 7.1% |
| Erythritol | 0.8 | 0.21 | 15 | 6.7% |
| Glycerol | 0.6 | 4.3 | 0.56 | 180% |
| HSH | 0.4–0.9 | 3.0 | 0.52–1.2 | 83–190% |
| Isomalt | 0.5 | 2.0 | 1.0 | 100% |
| Lactitol | 0.4 | 2.0 | 0.8 | 125% |
| Maltitol | 0.9 | 2.1 | 1.7 | 59% |
| Mannitol | 0.5 | 1.6 | 1.2 | 83% |
| Sorbitol | 0.6 | 2.6 | 0.92 | 108% |
| Xylitol | 1.0 | 2.4 | 1.6 | 62% |
| Compare with: Sucrose | 1.0 | 4.0 | 1.0 | 100% |
Reviews and dietetic professionals have concluded that moderate use of non-nutritive sweeteners as a safe replacement for sugars may help limit energy intake and assist with managingblood glucose andweight.[53][54][55] Other reviews found that the association between body weight and non-nutritive sweetener usage is inconclusive.[48][56][57]Observational studies tend to show a relation with increased body weight, whilerandomized controlled trials instead show a littlecausal weight loss.[48][56][57] Other reviews concluded that use of non-nutritive sweeteners instead of sugar reduces body weight.[53][54]
There is little evidence that artificial sweeteners directly affect the onset and mechanisms ofobesity, although consuming sweetened products is associated with weight gain in children.[58][59] Some preliminary studies indicate that consumption of products manufactured with artificial sweeteners is associated with obesity andmetabolic syndrome, decreasedsatiety, disturbed glucosemetabolism and weight gain, mainly due to increased overall calorie intake, although the numerous factors influencing obesity remain poorly studied, as of 2021.[58][59][60][61]
Multiple reviews have found no link between artificial sweeteners and the risk ofcancer.[48][62][63][64] FDA scientists have reviewed scientific data regarding the safety of aspartame and different sweeteners in food, concluding that they are safe for the general population under common intake conditions.[65]
High consumption of artificially sweetened beverages was associated with a 12% higher risk of all-cause mortality and a 23% higher risk ofcardiovascular disease (CVD) mortality in a 2021meta-analysis.[66] A 2020 meta-analysis found a similar result, with the highest-consuming group having a 13% higher risk of all-cause mortality and a 25% higher risk of CVD mortality.[67] However, both studies also found similar or greater increases in all-cause mortality when consuming the same amount of sugar-sweetened beverages.
TheWorld Health Organization does not recommend using non-nutritive sweeteners to control body weight, based on a 2022 review that could only find small reductions in body fat and no effect on cardiometabolic risk.[68] It recommends fruit or non-sweetened foods instead.[69]
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