Practitioners of Sufism are referred to as "Sufis" (fromصُوفِيّ,ṣūfīy),[2] and historically typically belonged to "orders" known astariqa (pl.turuq) — congregations formed around a grandwali (saint) who would be the last in achain of successive teachers linking back toMuhammad, with the goal of undergoingtazkiya (self purification) and the hope of reaching thespiritual station ofihsan.[3][4][5] The ultimate aim of Sufis is to seek the pleasure of God by endeavoring to return to their original state of purity and natural disposition, known asfitra.[6]
Sufism emerged early on inIslamic history, partly as a reaction against the expansion of the earlyUmayyad Caliphate (661–750) and mainly under the tutelage ofHasan al-Basri. Although Sufis were opposed to dry legalism, they strictly observedIslamic law and belonged to various schools ofIslamic jurisprudence andtheology.[7] Although the overwhelming majority of Sufis, both pre-modern and modern, remain adherents ofSunni Islam, certain strands of Sufi thought transferred over to the ambits ofShia Islam during the late medieval period.[8] This particularly happened after theSafavid conversion of Iran under the concept ofirfan.[8] Important focuses of Sufi worship includedhikr, the practice of remembrance of God. Sufis also played an important role in spreading Islam through their missionary and educational activities.[7]
Despite a relative decline of Sufi orders in the modern era and attacks fromfundamentalist Islamic movements (such asSalafism andWahhabism), Sufism has continued to play an important role in theIslamic world.[9][10] It has also influenced various forms of spirituality in the West and generated significant academic interest.[11][12][13]
Definitions
The Arabic wordtasawwuf (lit.''Sufism''), generally translated as Sufism, is commonly defined by Western authors as Islamic mysticism.[14][15][16] The Arabic termSufi has been used in Islamic literature with a wide range of meanings, by both proponents and opponents of Sufism.[14] Classical Sufi texts, which stressed certain teachings and practices of theQuran and thesunnah (exemplary teachings and practices of the Islamic prophetMuhammad), gave definitions oftasawwuf that described ethical and spiritual goals[note 1] and functioned as teaching tools for their attainment. Many other terms that described particular spiritual qualities and roles were used instead in more practical contexts.[14][15]
Some modern scholars have used other definitions of Sufism such as the "intensification of Islamic faith and practice"[14] and the "process of realizing ethical and spiritual ideals".[15]
The term Sufism was originally introduced into European languages in the 18th century by Orientalist scholars, who viewed it mainly as an intellectual doctrine and literary tradition at variance with what they saw as sterilemonotheism of Islam. It was often mistaken as a universal mysticism in contrast to legalistic orthodox Islam.[17] In recent times, historianNile Green has argued against such distinctions, stating, in the Medieval period Sufism and Islam were more or less the same.[18] In modern scholarly usage, the term serves to describe a wide range of social, cultural, political and religious phenomena associated with Sufis.[15]
Sufism has been variously defined as "Islamicmysticism",[19][20][21] "the mystical expression of Islamic faith",[22] "the inward dimension of Islam",[23][24] "the phenomenon of mysticism within Islam",[2][25] the "main manifestation and the most important and central crystallization" of mystical practice in Islam,[26][27] and "the interiorization and intensification of Islamic faith and practice".[28]
Etymology
The original meaning ofṣūfī seems to have been "one who wears wool (ṣūf)", and theEncyclopaedia of Islam calls other etymological hypotheses "untenable".[2][14] Woolen clothes were traditionally associated with ascetics and mystics.[2]Al-Qushayri andIbn Khaldun both rejected all possibilities other thanṣūf on linguistic grounds.[29]
Another explanation traces the lexical root of the word toṣafā (صفاء), which in Arabic means "purity", and in this context another similar idea oftasawwuf as considered in Islam istazkiyah (تزكية, meaning: self-purification), which is also widely used in Sufism. These two explanations were combined by the Sufial-Rudhabari (d. 322 AH), who said, "The Sufi is the one who wears wool on top of purity."[30][31]
Others have suggested that the word comes from the termAhl al-Ṣuffa[32] ("the people of thesuffah" or the bench), who were a group of impoverished companions of Muhammad who held regular gatherings ofdhikr.[33] One of the most prominent companions among them wasAbu Hurayra. These men and women who sat at theProphet's Mosque are considered by some to be the first Sufis.[34][35]
The current consensus is that Sufism emerged in theHejaz, present day Saudi Arabia and that it has existed as a practice of Muslims from the earliest days of Islam, even predating some sectarian divides.[36]
Sufi orders are based on the 'bayah (Arabic:بَيْعَة,lit. 'pledge') that was given to Muhammad by his companions (ṣahabah). By pledging allegiance to Muhammad, thesahabah had committed themselves to the service of God.[37][38][39]
Verily, those who give Bay'âh (pledge) to you (O Muhammad) they are giving Bay'âh (pledge) toGod. The Hand of God is over their hands. Then whosoever breaks his pledge, breaks it only to his own harm, and whosoever fulfils what he has covenanted with God, He will bestow on him a great reward. — [Translation of Quran48:10]
Sufis believe that by givingbayʿah (pledging allegiance) to a legitimate Sufishaykh, one is pledging allegiance to Muhammad; therefore, a spiritual connection between the seeker and Muhammad is established. It is through Muhammad that Sufis aim to learn about, understand and connect with God.[40] Ali is regarded as one of the major figures amongst thesahaba who have directly pledged allegiance to Muhammad, and Sufis maintain that through Ali, knowledge about Muhammad and a connection with Muhammad may be attained. Such a concept may be understood by thehadith, which Sufis regard to be authentic, in which Muhammad said, "I am the city of knowledge, and Ali is its gate."[41] Eminent Sufis such asAli Hujwiri refer to Ali as having a very high ranking inTasawwuf. Furthermore,Junayd of Baghdad regarded Ali assheikh of the principals and practices ofTasawwuf.[42]
HistorianJonathan A.C. Brown notes that during the lifetime of Muhammad, some companions were more inclined than others to "intensive devotion, pious abstemiousness and pondering the divine mysteries" more than Islam required, such asAbu Dharr al-Ghifari.Hasan al-Basri, atabi', is considered a "founding figure" in the "science of purifying the heart".[43]
Practitioners of Sufism hold that in its early stages of development Sufism effectively referred to nothing more than the internalization of Islam.[44] According to one perspective, it is directly from the Qur'an, constantly recited, meditated, and experienced, that Sufism proceeded, in its origin and its development.[45] Other practitioners have held that Sufism is the strict emulation of the way of Muhammad, through which the heart's connection to the Divine is strengthened.[46]
Later developments of Sufism occurred from people likeDawud Tai andBayazid Bastami.[47] Early on Sufism was known for its strict adherence to thesunnah, for example it was reported Bastami refused to eat a watermelon because he did not find any proof that Muhammad ever ate it.[48][49] According to the late medieval mystic, the Persian poetJami,[50]Abd-Allah ibn Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyyah (died c. 716) was the first person to be called a "Sufi".[29] The term also had a strong connection withKufa, with three of the earliest scholars to be called by the term being Abu Hashim al-Kufi,[51]Jabir ibn Hayyan and Abdak al-Sufi.[52] Later individuals included Hatim al-Attar, from Basra, andAl-Junayd al-Baghdadi.[52] Others, such asAl-Harith al-Muhasibi andSari al-Saqati, were not known as Sufis during their lifetimes, but later came to be identified as such due to their focus ontazkiah (purification).[52]
Within the Sufi tradition, the formation of the orders did not immediately produce lineages of master and disciple. There are few examples before the eleventh century of complete lineages going back to the Prophet Muhammad. Yet the symbolic importance of these lineages was immense: they provided a channel to divine authority through master-disciple chains. It was through such chains of masters and disciples that spiritual power and blessings were transmitted to both general and special devotees.[56]
These orders meet for spiritual sessions (majalis) in meeting places known aszawiyas,khanqahs ortekke.[57]
They strive forihsan (perfection of worship), as detailed in ahadith: "Ihsan is to worship Allah as if you see Him; if you can't see Him, surely He sees you."[58] Sufisregard Muhammad asal-Insān al-Kāmil, the complete human who personifies theattributes ofAbsolute Reality,[59] and view him as their ultimate spiritual guide.[60]
Sufi orders trace most of their original precepts from Muhammad throughAli ibn Abi Talib,[61] with the notable exception of theNaqshbandi order, who trace their original precepts to Muhammad throughAbu Bakr.[62] However, it was not necessary to formally belong to a tariqa.[63] In the Medieval period, Sufism was almost equal to Islam in general and not limited to specific orders.[64](p24)
Sufism had a long history already before the subsequent institutionalization of Sufi teachings into devotional orders (tariqa, pl.tarîqât) in the early Middle Ages.[65] The termtariqa is used for a school or order of Sufism, or especially for the mystical teaching and spiritual practices of such an order with the aim of seekingḥaqīqah (ultimate truth). A tariqa has amurshid (guide) who plays the role of leader or spiritual director. The members or followers of a tariqa are known asmurīdīn (singularmurīd), meaning "desirous", viz. "desiring the knowledge of knowing God and loving God".[66]
Over the years, Sufi orders have influenced and been adopted by various Shi'i movements, especiallyIsma'ilism, which led to theSafaviyya order's conversion to Shia Islam from Sunni Islam and the spread ofTwelverism throughout Iran.[67]
Sufism as an Islamic discipline
Dancing dervishes, byKamāl ud-Dīn Behzād (c. 1480–1490)Monar Jonban, a "dancing" monument, built over the grave of the Sufi ascetic Amu Abdullah Suqla in 12th century. A person stands on top and shakes one minaret, causing the second minaret to move with the same oscillation.
Existing in both Sunni and Shia Islam, Sufism is not a distinct sect, as is sometimes erroneously assumed, but a method of approaching or a way of understanding the religion, which strives to take the regular practice of the religion to the "supererogatory level" through simultaneously "fulfilling ... [the obligatory] religious duties"[2] and finding a "way and a means of striking a root through the 'narrow gate' in the depth of thesoul out into the domain of the pure arid un-imprisonableSpirit which itself opens out on to the Divinity."[21] Academic studies of Sufism confirm that Sufism, as a separate tradition from Islam apart from so-calledpure Islam, is frequently a product ofWestern orientalism and modernIslamic fundamentalists.[68]
As a mystic and ascetic aspect of Islam, it is considered as the part of Islamic teaching that deals with the purification of the inner self. By focusing on the more spiritual aspects of religion, Sufis strive to obtain direct experience of God by making use of "intuitive and emotional faculties" that one must be trained to use.[65]Tasawwuf is regarded as a science of the soul that has always been an integral part of Orthodox Islam. In hisAl-Risala al-Safadiyya,ibn Taymiyyah describes the Sufis as those who belong to the path of the Sunna and represent it in their teachings and writings.[citation needed]
Ibn Taymiyya's Sufi inclinations and his reverence for Sufis likeAbdul-Qadir Gilani can also be seen in his hundred-page commentary onFutuh al-ghayb, covering only five of the seventy-eight sermons of the book, but showing that he consideredtasawwuf essential within the life of the Islamic community.[citation needed]
Al-Ghazali narrates inAl-Munqidh min al-dalal:
The vicissitudes of life, family affairs and financial constraints engulfed my life and deprived me of the congenial solitude. The heavy odds confronted me and provided me with few moments for my pursuits. This state of affairs lasted for ten years, but whenever I had some spare and congenial moments I resorted to my intrinsic proclivity. During these turbulent years, numerous astonishing and indescribable secrets of life were unveiled to me. I was convinced that the group of Aulia (holy mystics) is the only truthful group who follow the right path, display best conduct and surpass all sages in their wisdom and insight. They derive all their overt or covert behaviour from the illumining guidance of the holy Prophet, the only guidance worth quest and pursuit.[69]
In the eleventh-century, Sufism, which had previously been a less "codified" trend in Islamic piety, began to be "ordered and crystallized" intoorders which have continued until the present day. All these orders were founded by a major Islamic scholar, and some of the largest and most widespread included theSuhrawardiyya (afterAbu al-Najib Suhrawardi [d. 1168]),Qadiriyya (afterAbdul-Qadir Gilani [d. 1166]), theRifa'iyya (afterAhmed al-Rifa'i [d. 1182]), theChishtiyya (afterMoinuddin Chishti [d. 1236]), theShadiliyya (afterAbul Hasan ash-Shadhili [d. 1258]), the Hamadaniyyah (afterSayyid Ali Hamadani [d. 1384]), the Naqshbandiyya (afterBaha-ud-Din Naqshband Bukhari [d. 1389]).[70] Contrary to popular perception in the West,[71] however, neither the founders of these orders nor their followers ever considered themselves to be anything other than orthodox Sunni Muslims,[71] and in fact all of these orders were attached to one of thefour orthodox legal schools of Sunni Islam.[72] Thus, theQadiriyya order wasHanbali, with its founder,Abdul-Qadir Gilani, being a renowned jurist; theChishtiyya wasHanafi; theShadiliyya order wasMaliki; and the Naqshbandiyya order wasHanafi.[73] Thus, it is precisely because it is historically proven that "many of the most eminent defenders of Islamic orthodoxy, such asAbdul-Qadir Gilani,Ghazali, and the Sultan Ṣalāḥ ad-Dīn (Saladin) were connected with Sufism"[74] that the popular studies of writers likeIdries Shah are continuously disregarded by scholars as conveying the fallacious image that "Sufism" is somehow distinct from "Islam".[75][74][76] Nile Green has observed that, in the Middle Ages, Sufism more or less wasIslam.[64](p24)
Historically, Sufism became "an incredibly important part of Islam" and "one of the most widespread and omnipresent aspects of Muslim life" inIslamic civilization from the early medieval period onwards,[77][better source needed] when it began to permeate nearly all major aspects of Sunni Islamic life in regions stretching from India and Iraq to theBalkans andSenegal.[78][better source needed]
The rise of Islamic civilization coincides strongly with the spread of Sufi philosophy in Islam. The spread of Sufism has been considered a definitive factor in the spread of Islam, and in the creation of integrally Islamic cultures, especially in Africa[79] and Asia. TheSenussi tribes ofLibya and theSudan are one of the strongest adherents of Sufism. Sufi poets and philosophers such asKhoja Akhmet Yassawi,Rumi, andAttar of Nishapur (c. 1145 – c. 1221) greatly enhanced the spread of Islamic culture inAnatolia,Central Asia, andSouth Asia.[80][81] Sufism also played a role in creating and propagating the culture of theOttoman world,[82] and in resisting European imperialism in North Africa and South Asia.[83]
Between the 13th and 16th centuries, Sufism produced a flourishing intellectual culture throughout the Islamic world, a "Renaissance" whose physical artifacts survive.[citation needed] In many places a person or group would endow awaqf to maintain a lodge (known variously as azawiya,khanqah, ortekke) to provide a gathering place for Sufi adepts, as well as lodging for itinerant seekers of knowledge. The same system of endowments could also pay for a complex of buildings, such as that surrounding theSüleymaniye Mosque inIstanbul, including a lodge for Sufi seekers, ahospice with kitchens where these seekers could serve the poor and/or complete a period of initiation, a library, and other structures. No important domain in the civilization of Islam remained unaffected by Sufism in this period.[86]
Modern era
Opposition to Sufi teachers and orders from more literalist and legalist strains of Islam existed in various forms throughout Islamic history. It took on a particularly violent form in the 18th century with the emergence of theWahhabi movement.[87]
Around the turn of the 20th century, Sufi rituals and doctrines also came under sustained criticism frommodernist Islamic reformers, liberal nationalists, and, some decades later, socialist movements in the Muslim world. Sufi orders were accused of fostering popular superstitions, resisting modern intellectual attitudes, and standing in the way of progressive reforms. Ideological attacks on Sufism were reinforced by agrarian and educational reforms, as well as new forms of taxation, which were instituted by Westernizing national governments, undermining the economic foundations of Sufi orders. The extent to which Sufi orders declined in the first half of the 20th century varied from country to country, but by the middle of the century the very survival of the orders and traditional Sufi lifestyle appeared doubtful to many observers.[88][87]
However, defying these predictions, Sufism and Sufi orders have continued to play a major role in the Muslim world, also expanding into Muslim-minority countries. Its ability to articulate an inclusive Islamic identity with greater emphasis on personal and small-group piety has made Sufism especially well-suited for contexts characterized by religious pluralism and secularist perspectives.[87]
In the modern world, the classical interpretation of Sunni orthodoxy, which sees in Sufism an essential dimension of Islam alongside the disciplines ofjurisprudence andtheology, is represented by institutions such asEgypt'sAl-Azhar University andZaytuna College, with Al-Azhar's currentGrand ImamAhmed el-Tayeb recently defining "Sunni orthodoxy" as being a follower "of any of the four schools of [legal] thought (Hanafi,Shafi’i,Maliki orHanbali) and ... [also] of the Sufism of ImamJunayd of Baghdad in doctrines, manners and [spiritual] purification."[72]
The relationship of Sufi orders to modern societies is usually defined by their relationship to governments.[89]
Turkey, Persia and The Indian Subcontinent have all been a center for many Sufi lineages and orders. The Bektashi were closely affiliated with the OttomanJanissaries and are the heart of Turkey's large and mostly liberalAlevi population. They have spread westwards toCyprus, Greece, Albania, Bulgaria, North Macedonia,Bosnia and Herzegovina,Kosovo, and, more recently, to the United States, viaAlbania. Sufism is popular in such African countries as Egypt, Tunisia, Algeria, Sudan, Morocco, andSenegal, where it is seen as a mystical expression of Islam.[90] Mbacke suggests that one reason Sufism has taken hold in Senegal is because it can accommodate local beliefs and customs, which tend toward themystical.[91]
A number of Westerners have embarked with varying degrees of success on the path of Sufism. One of the first to return to Europe as an official representative of a Sufi order, and with the specific purpose to spread Sufism in Western Europe, was theSwedish-born wandering SufiIvan Aguéli.René Guénon, the French scholar, became a Sufi in the early twentieth century and was known as Sheikh Abdul Wahid Yahya. His manifold writings defined the practice of Sufism as the essence of Islam, but also pointed to the universality of its message. Spiritualists, such asGeorge Gurdjieff, may or may not conform to the tenets of Sufism as understood by orthodox Muslims.[94]
Aims and objectives
TheTomb of Shah Rukn-e-Alam (built 1324 A.D) is located inMultan, Pakistan. Known for its multitude of Sufi shrines, Multan is nicknamed asThe City of Saints.
While all Muslims believe that they are on the pathway to Allah and hope to become close to God inParadise—after death and after theLast Judgment—Sufis also believe that it is possible to draw closer to God and to more fully embrace thedivine presence in this life.[citation needed] The chief aim of all Sufis is to seek the pleasure of God by working to restore within themselves the primordial state offitra.[6]
To Sufis, the outer law consists of rules pertaining to worship, transactions, marriage, judicial rulings, and criminal law—what is often referred to, broadly, as "qanun". The inner law of Sufism consists of rules about repentance from sin, the purging of contemptible qualities and evil traits of character, and adornment with virtues and good character.[95]
Teachings
Man holding the hem of his beloved, an expression of a Sufi's agony of longing for the divine union
To the Sufi, it is the transmission of divine light from the teacher's heart to the heart of the student, rather than worldly knowledge, that allows the adept to progress. They further believe that the teacher should attempt inerrantly to follow theDivine Law.[96]
According toMoojan Momen "one of the most important doctrines of Sufism is the concept ofal-Insan al-Kamil ("the Perfect Man"). This doctrine states that there will always exist upon the earth a "qutb" (pole or axis of the Universe)—a man who is the perfect channel of grace from God to man and in a state ofwilayah (sanctity, being under the protection of Allah). The concept of the Sufiqutb is similar to that of theShi'i imam.[97][98] However, this belief puts Sufism in "direct conflict" with Shia Islam, since both thequtb (who for most Sufi orders is the head of the order) and the imam fulfill the role of "the purveyor of spiritual guidance and ofAllah's grace to mankind". The vow of obedience to the shaykh orqutb which is taken by Sufis is considered incompatible with devotion to the imam.[97]
As a further example, the prospective adherent of the Mevlevi Order would have been ordered to serve in the kitchens of a hospice for the poor for 1001 days prior to being accepted for spiritual instruction, and a further 1,001 days in solitary retreat as a precondition of completing that instruction.[99]
Some teachers, especially when addressing more general audiences, or mixed groups of Muslims and non-Muslims, make extensive use ofparable,allegory, andmetaphor.[100] Although approaches to teaching vary among different Sufi orders, Sufism as a whole is primarily concerned with direct personal experience, and as such has sometimes been compared to other, non-Islamic forms ofmysticism (e.g., as in the books ofSeyyed Hossein Nasr).
Many Sufi believe that to reach the highest levels of success in Sufism typically requires that the disciple live with and serve the teacher for a long period of time.[101] An example is the folk story aboutBaha-ud-Din Naqshband Bukhari, who gave his name to the Naqshbandi Order. He is believed to have served his first teacher,Sayyid Muhammad Baba As-Samasi, for 20 years, until as-Samasi died. He is said to then have served several other teachers for lengthy periods of time. He is said to have helped the poorer members of the community for many years, and after this concluded his teacher directed him to care for animals cleaning their wounds, and assisting them.[102]
Muhammad
His [Muhammad's] aspiration preceded all other aspirations, his existence preceded nothingness, and his name preceded the Pen, because he existed before all peoples. There is not in the horizons, beyond the horizons or below the horizons, anyone more elegant, more noble, more knowing, more just, more fearsome, or more compassionate, than the subject of this tale. He is the leader of created beings, the one "whose name is glorious Ahmad".—Mansur Al-Hallaj[103]
The name of Muhammad inIslamic calligraphy. Sufis believe the name of Muhammad is holy and sacred.
Devotion to Muhammad is the strongest practice within Sufism.[104] Sufis have historically revered Muhammad as the prime personality of spiritual greatness. The Sufi poetSaadi Shirazi stated, "He who chooses a path contrary to that of the prophet shall never reach the destination. O Saadi, do not think that one can treat that way of purity except in the wake of the chosen one."[105] Rumi attributes his self-control and abstinence from worldly desires as qualities attained by him through the guidance of Muhammad. Rumi states, "I 'sewed' my two eyes shut from [desires for] this world and the next – this I learned from Muhammad."[106]Ibn Arabi regards Muhammad as the greatest man and states, "Muhammad's wisdom is uniqueness (fardiya) because he is the most perfect existent creature of this human species. For this reason, the command began with him and was sealed with him. He was a Prophet while Adam was between water and clay, and his elemental structure is the Seal of the Prophets."[107]Attar of Nishapur claimed that he praised Muhammad in such a manner that was not done before by any poet, in his book theIlahi-nama.[108] Fariduddin Attar stated, "Muhammad is the exemplar to both worlds, the guide of the descendants of Adam. He is the sun of creation, the moon of the celestial spheres, the all-seeing eye...The seven heavens and the eight gardens of paradise were created for him; he is both the eye and the light in the light of our eyes."[109] Sufis have historically stressed the importance of Muhammad's perfection and his ability to intercede. The persona of Muhammad has historically been and remains an integral and critical aspect of Sufi belief and practice.[104] Bayazid Bastami is recorded to have been so devoted to thesunnah of Muhammad that he refused to eat a watermelon because he could not establish that Muhammad ever ate one.[110]
In the 13th century, a Sufi poet fromEgypt,Al-Busiri, wrote theal-Kawākib ad-Durrīya fī Madḥ Khayr al-Barīya ('The Celestial Lights in Praise of the Best of Creation'), commonly referred to asQaṣīdat al-Burda ('Poem of the Mantle'), in which he extensively praised Muhammad.[111] This poem is still widely recited and sung amongst Sufi groups and lay Muslims alike all over the world.[111]
Sufi beliefs about Muhammad
According to Ibn Arabi, Islam is the best religion because of Muhammad.[59]Ibn Arabi regards that the first entity that was brought into existence is the reality or essence of Muhammad (al-ḥaqīqa al-Muhammadiyya). Ibn Arabi regards Muhammad as the supreme human being and master of all creatures. Muhammad is therefore the primaryrole model for human beings to aspire to emulate.[59] Ibn Arabi believes that God's attributes and names are manifested in this world and that the most complete and perfect display of these divine attributes and names are seen in Muhammad.[59] Ibn Arabi believes that one may see God in the mirror of Muhammad, meaning that the divine attributes of God are manifested through Muhammad.[59] Ibn Arabi maintains that Muhammad is the best proof of God, and by knowing Muhammad one knows God.[59] Ibn Arabi also maintains that Muhammad is the master of all of humanity in both this world and the afterlife. In this view, Islam is the best religion because Muhammad is Islam.[59]
Sufis believe thesharia (exoteric "canon"),tariqa ("order") andhaqiqa ("truth") are mutually interdependent.[112] Sufism leads the adept, calledsalik or "wayfarer", in hissulûk or "road" through different stations (maqāmāt) until he reaches his goal, the perfecttawhid, the existential confession that God is One.[113] Ibn Arabi says, "When we see someone in this Community who claims to be able to guide others to God, but is remiss in but one rule of the Sacred Law—even if he manifests miracles that stagger the mind—asserting that his shortcoming is a special dispensation for him, we do not even turn to look at him, for such a person is not a sheikh, nor is he speaking the truth, for no one is entrusted with the secrets of God Most High save one in whom the ordinances of the Sacred Law are preserved. (Jamiʿ karamat al-awliyaʾ)".[114][115]
It is related, moreover, that Malik, one of the founders of the four schools of Sunni law, was a strong proponent of combining the "inward science" ('ilm al-bātin) of mystical knowledge with the "outward science" ofjurisprudence.[116] For example, the famous twelfth-centuryMalikijurist and judgeQadi Iyad, later venerated as asaint throughout theIberian Peninsula, narrated a tradition in which a man asked Malik "about something in the inward science", to which Malik replied: "Truly none knows the inward science except those who know the outward science! When he knows the outward science and puts it into practice, God shall open for him the inward science – and that will not take place except by the opening of his heart and its enlightenment." In other similar traditions, it is related that Malik said: "He who practices Sufism (tasawwuf) without learning Sacred Law corrupts his faith (tazandaqa), while he who learns Sacred Law without practicing Sufism corrupts himself (tafassaqa). Only he who combines the two proves true (tahaqqaqa)".[116]
TheAmman Message, a detailed statement issued by 200 leading Islamic scholars in 2005 inAmman, specifically recognized the validity of Sufism as a part of Islam. This was adopted by the Islamic world's political and temporal leaderships at theOrganisation of the Islamic Conference summit at Mecca in December 2005, and by six other international Islamic scholarly assemblies including the International Islamic Fiqh Academy of Jeddah, in July 2006. The definition of Sufism can vary drastically between different traditions (what may be intended is simpletazkiah as opposed to the various manifestations of Sufism around the Islamic world).[117]
The literature of Sufism emphasizes highly subjective matters that resist outside observation, such as the subtle states of the heart. Often these resist direct reference or description, with the consequence that the authors of various Sufi treatises took recourse to allegorical language. For instance, much Sufi poetry refers to intoxication, which Islam expressly forbids. This usage of indirect language and the existence of interpretations by people who had no training in Islam or Sufism led to doubts being cast over the validity of Sufism as a part of Islam. Also, some groups emerged that considered themselves above thesharia and discussed Sufism as a method of bypassing the rules of Islam in order to attain salvation directly. This was disapproved of by traditional scholars.
For these and other reasons, the relationship between traditional Islamic scholars and Sufism is complex, and a range of scholarly opinion on Sufism in Islam has been the norm. Some scholars, such as Al-Ghazali, helped its propagation while other scholars opposed it.William Chittick explains the position of Sufism and Sufis this way:
In short, Muslim scholars who focused their energies on understanding the normative guidelines for the body came to be known as jurists, and those who held that the most important task was to train the mind in achieving correct understanding came to be divided into three main schools of thought: theology, philosophy, and Sufism. This leaves us with the third domain of human existence, the spirit. Most Muslims who devoted their major efforts to developing the spiritual dimensions of the human person came to be known as Sufis.[48]
The termneo-Sufism was originally coined byFazlur Rahman and used by other scholars to describe reformist currents among 18th century Sufi orders, whose goal was to remove some of the more ecstatic and pantheistic elements of the Sufi tradition and reassert the importance of Islamic law as the basis for inner spirituality and social activism.[13][11] In recent times, it has been increasingly used by scholars like Mark Sedgwick in the opposite sense, to describe various forms of Sufi-influenced spirituality in the West, in particular the deconfessionalized spiritual movements which emphasize universal elements of the Sufi tradition and de-emphasize its Islamic context.[11][12]
The devotional practices of Sufis vary widely. Prerequisites to practice include rigorous adherence to Islamic norms (ritual prayer in its five prescribed times each day, the fast of Ramadan, and so forth). Additionally, the seeker ought to be firmly grounded in supererogatory practices known from the life of Muhammad (such as the "sunnah prayers"). This is in accordance with the words, attributed to God, of the following, a famousHadith Qudsi:
My servant draws near to Me through nothing I love more than that which I have made obligatory for him. My servant never ceases drawing near to Me through supererogatory works until I love him. Then, when I love him, I am his hearing through which he hears, his sight through which he sees, his hand through which he grasps, and his foot through which he walks.[120]
It is also necessary for the seeker to have a correct creed (aqidah),[121] and to embrace with certainty its tenets.[122] The seeker must also, of necessity, turn away from sins, love of this world, the love of company and renown, obedience to satanic impulse, and the promptings of the lower self. (The way in which this purification of the heart is achieved is outlined in certain books, but must be prescribed in detail by a Sufi master.) The seeker must also be trained to prevent the corruption of those good deeds which have accrued to his or her credit by overcoming the traps of ostentation, pride, arrogance, envy, and long hopes (meaning the hope for a long life allowing us to mend our ways later, rather than immediately, here and now).
Sufi practices, while attractive to some, are not ameans for gaining knowledge. The traditional scholars of Sufism hold it as absolutely axiomatic that knowledge of God is not a psychological state generated through breath control. Thus, practice of "techniques" is not the cause, but instead theoccasion for such knowledge to be obtained (if at all), given proper prerequisites and proper guidance by a master of the way. Furthermore, the emphasis on practices may obscure a far more important fact: The seeker is, in a sense, to become a broken person, stripped of all habits through the practice of (in the words of Imam Al-Ghazali) solitude, silence, sleeplessness, and hunger.[123]
The name of Allah as written on the disciple's heart, according to the Sarwari Qadri Order
Dhikr is the remembrance of Allah commanded in theQuran for allMuslims through a specific devotional act, such as the repetition of divine names, supplications and aphorisms fromhadith literature and the Quran. More generally,dhikr takes a wide range and various layers of meaning.[124] This includesdhikr as any activity in which the Muslim maintains awareness of Allah. To engage indhikr is to practice consciousness of the Divine Presence andlove, or "to seek a state of godwariness". The Quran refers to Muhammad as the very embodiment ofdhikr of Allah (65:10–11). Some types ofdhikr are prescribed for all Muslims and do not require Sufi initiation or the prescription of a Sufi master because they are deemed to be good for every seeker under every circumstance.[125]
Some Sufi orders stress and place extensive reliance upondhikr. This practice ofdhikr is calledDhikr-e-Qulb (invocation of Allah within the heartbeats). The basic idea in this practice is to visualize the Allah as having been written on the disciple's heart.[128]
The practice ofmuraqaba can be likened to the practices ofmeditation attested in many faith communities.[129] While variation exists, one description of the practice within a Naqshbandi lineage reads as follows:
He is to collect all of his bodily senses in concentration, and to cut himself off from all preoccupation and notions that inflict themselves upon the heart. And thus he is to turn his full consciousness towards God Most High while saying three times: "Ilahî anta maqsûdî wa-ridâka matlûbî—my God, you are my Goal and Your good pleasure is what I seek". Then he brings to his heart the Name of the Essence—Allâh—and as it courses through his heart he remains attentive to its meaning, which is "Essence without likeness". The seeker remains aware that He is Present, Watchful, Encompassing of all, thereby exemplifying the meaning of his saying (may God bless him and grant him peace): "Worship God as though you see Him, for if you do not see Him, He sees you". And likewise the prophetic tradition: "The most favored level of faith is to know that God is witness over you, wherever you may be".[130]
Sufi whirling (or Sufi spinning) is a form ofSama or physically activemeditation which originated among some Sufis, and practised by the SufiDervishes of theMevlevi order. It is a customary dance performed within thesema, through which dervishes (also calledsemazens, from Persianسماعزن) aim to reach the source of all perfection, orkemal. This is sought through abandoning one'snafs,egos or personal desires, by listening to the music, focusing onGod, and spinning one's body in repetitive circles, which has been seen as a symbolic imitation of planets in theSolar System orbiting the Sun.[131]
In the symbolism of the Sema ritual, the semazen's camel's hair hat (sikke) represents the tombstone of the ego; his wide, white skirt (tennure) represents the ego's shroud. By removing his black cloak (hırka), he is spiritually reborn to the truth. At the beginning of the Sema, by holding his arms crosswise, the semazen appears to represent the number one, thus testifying to God's unity. While whirling, his arms are open: his right arm is directed to the sky, ready to receive God's beneficence; his left hand, upon which his eyes are fastened, is turned toward the earth. The semazen conveys God's spiritual gift to those who are witnessing the Sema. Revolving from right to left around the heart, the semazen embraces all humanity with love. The human being has been created with love in order to love. Mevlâna Jalâluddîn Rumi says, "All loves are a bridge to Divine love. Yet, those who have not had a taste of it do not know!"
The traditional view of most orthodox Sunni Sufi orders, such as theQadiriyya and theChisti, as well as Sunni Muslim scholars in general, is that dancing with intent during dhikr or whilst listening toSema is prohibited.[133][134][135][136]
Musical instruments (except theDaf) have traditionally been considered as prohibited by the four orthodox Sunni schools,[133][137][138][139][140] and the more orthodox Sufi tariqas also continued to prohibit their use. Throughout history most Sufi saints have stressed that musical instruments are forbidden.[133][141][142] However some Sufi Saints permitted and encouraged it, whilst maintaining that musical instruments and female voices should not be introduced, although these are common practice today.[133][141]
For exampleQawwali was originally a form of Sufi devotional singing popular in theIndian subcontinent, and is now usually performed atdargahs. Sufi saintAmir Khusrau is said to have infused Persian, Arabic Turkish andIndian classical melodic styles to create the genre in the 13th century. The songs are classified intohamd,na'at, manqabat,marsiya orghazal, among others.
Nowadays, the songs last for about 15 to 30 minutes, are performed by a group of singers, and instruments including theharmonium,tabla anddholak are used. Pakistani singing maestroNusrat Fateh Ali Khan is credited with popularizingqawwali all over the world.[143]
Walī (Arabic:ولي, pluralʾawliyāʾأولياء) is an Arabic word whose literal meanings include "custodian", "protector", "helper", and "friend".[144] In the vernacular, it is most commonly used by Muslims to indicate an Islamicsaint, otherwise referred to by the more literal "friend of God".[145][146][147] In the traditional Islamic understanding ofsaints, the saint is portrayed as someone "marked by [special] divine favor ... [and] holiness", and who is specifically "chosen by God and endowed with exceptional gifts, such as the ability to workmiracles."[148] The doctrine of saints was articulated by Islamic scholars very early on in Muslim history,[149][150][2][151] and particular verses of theQuran and certainhadith were interpreted by early Muslim thinkers as "documentary evidence"[2] of the existence of saints.
Since the first Muslim hagiographies were written during the period when Sufism began its rapid expansion, many of the figures who later came to be regarded as the major saints in Sunni Islam were the early Sufi mystics, likeHasan of Basra (d. 728),Farqad Sabakhi (d. 729),Dawud Tai (d. 777-81)Rabi'a al-'Adawiyya (d. 801),Maruf Karkhi (d. 815), andJunayd of Baghdad (d. 910). From the twelfth to the fourteenth century, "the general veneration of saints, among both people and sovereigns, reached its definitive form with the organization of Sufism ... into orders or brotherhoods."[152] In the common expressions of Islamic piety of this period, the saint was understood to be "a contemplative whose state of spiritual perfection ... [found] permanent expression in the teaching bequeathed to his disciples."[152]
Likewise, inFes, Morocco, a popular destination for such pious visitation is theZaouia Moulay Idriss II and the yearly visitation to see the current sheikh of the Qadiri BoutchichiTariqah, Sheikh Sidi Hamza al Qadiri al Boutchichi to celebrate theMawlid (which is usually televised on Moroccan National television).[153][154] This action has voiced particular condemnation by the Salafis.
In Islamic mysticism,karamat (Arabic:کراماتkarāmāt, pl. ofکرامةkarāmah, lit. generosity, high-mindedness[155]) refers to supernatural wonders performed byMuslim saints. In the technical vocabulary of Islamic religious sciences, the singular formkarama has a sense similar tocharism, a favor or spiritual gift freely bestowed by God.[156] The marvels ascribed to Islamic saints have included supernatural physical actions, predictions of the future, and "interpretation of the secrets of hearts".[156] Historically, a "belief in the miracles of saints (karāmāt al-awliyāʾ, literally 'marvels of the friends [of God]')" has been "a requirement in Sunni Islam".[157]
Shrines
Adargah (Persian: درگاهdargâh or درگهdargah, also inPunjabi andUrdu) is ashrine built over the grave of a revered religious figure, often a Sufisaint ordervish. Sufis often visit the shrine forziyarat, a term associated with religious visits and pilgrimages.Dargahs are often associated with Sufi eating and meeting rooms and hostels, calledkhanqah or hospices. They usually include a mosque, meeting rooms, Islamic religious schools (madrassas), residences for a teacher or caretaker, hospitals, and other buildings for community purposes.
Theoretical perspectives
The works of Al-Ghazali firmly defended the concepts of Sufism within the Islamic faith.
Traditional Islamic scholars have recognized two major branches within the practice of Sufism and use this as one key to differentiating among the approaches of different masters and devotional lineages.[158]
On the one hand there is the order from the signs to the Signifier (or from the arts to the Artisan). In this branch, the seeker begins by purifying the lower self of every corrupting influence that stands in the way of recognizing all of creation as the work of God, as God's active self-disclosure ortheophany.[159] This is the way of Imam Al-Ghazali and of the majority of the Sufi orders.
On the other hand, there is the order from the Signifier to his signs, from the Artisan to his works. In this branch the seeker experiences divine attraction (jadhba), and is able to enter the order with a glimpse of its endpoint, of direct apprehension of the Divine Presence towards which all spiritual striving is directed. This does not replace the striving to purify the heart, as in the other branch; it simply stems from a different point of entry into the path. This is the way primarily of the masters of the Naqshbandi andShadhili orders.[160]
Contemporary scholars may also recognize a third branch, attributed to the lateOttoman scholarSaid Nursi and explicated in his vast Qur'an commentary called theRisale-i Nur. This approach entails strict adherence to the way of Muhammad, in the understanding that this wont, orsunnah, proposes a complete devotional spirituality adequate to those without access to a master of the Sufi way.[161]
Contributions to other domains of scholarship
Sufism has contributed significantly to the elaboration of theoretical perspectives in many domains of intellectual endeavor. For instance, the doctrine of "subtle centers" or centers of subtle cognition (known asLataif-e-sitta) addresses the matter of the awakening of spiritual intuition.[162] In general, these subtle centers orlatâ'if are thought of as faculties that are to be purified sequentially in order to bring the seeker's wayfaring to completion. A concise and useful summary of this system from a living exponent of this tradition has been published byMuhammad Emin Er.[158]
Sufi psychology has influenced many areas of thinking both within and outside of Islam, drawing primarily upon three concepts.Ja'far al-Sadiq (both animam in the Shia tradition and a respected scholar and link in chains of Sufi transmission in all Islamic sects) held that human beings are dominated by a lower self called thenafs (self, ego, person), a faculty of spiritual intuition called theqalb (heart), andruh (soul). These interact in various ways, producing the spiritual types of the tyrant (dominated bynafs), the person of faith and moderation (dominated by the spiritual heart), and the person lost in love for God (dominated by theruh).[163]
Of note with regard to the spread of Sufi psychology in the West isRobert Frager, a Sufi teacher authorized in theJerrahi order. Frager was a trained psychologist, born in the United States, who converted to Islam in the course of his practice of Sufism and wrote extensively on Sufism and psychology.[164][non-primary source needed]
Depiction of Rabi'agrinding grain from a Persian dictionary
Rābiʼa al-ʼAdawiyya or Rabia Basri was aSufi saint, one of the earliestSufi mystics and an influential religious figure from Iraq.[166] Rabi'a was born of very poor origin, but was captured by bandits at a later age and sold into slavery. She was, however, released by her master when he awoke one night to see the light of sanctity shining above her head.[167] Prominent Sufi leaderHasan of Basra is said "I passed one whole night and day with Rabi'a ... it never passed through my mind that I was a man nor did it occur to her that she was a woman... when I saw her I saw myself as bankrupt and Rabi'a as truly sincere."[168] Rabi'a al-Adawiyya is known for her teachings and emphasis on the centrality of the love of God to a holy life.[169] She is said to have proclaimed, running down the streets ofBasra, Iraq:
O God! If I worship You for fear of Hell, burn me in Hell, and if I worship You in hope of Paradise, exclude me from Paradise. But if I worship You for Your Own sake, grudge me not Your everlasting Beauty.
— Rabi'a al-Adawiyya
There are different opinions about the death and resting place of Rabia Basri. Some believe her resting place to beJerusalem whereas others believe it to be Basra.[170][171]
Junayd of Baghdad
Junayd al-Baghdadi (830–910) was one of the earlier Sufis. He was aPersian Sufi and one of the most famous of the earlyIslamic saints and is a central figure in the spiritual lineages of manySufi orders.[172][173] Junayd al-Baghdadi taught inBaghdad throughout his lifetime and was an important figure in the development of Sufi beliefs. LikeHasan of Basra before him, was widely revered by his students and disciples as well as quoted by other mystics. Because of his importance among Sufis, Junayd was often referred to as the "Sultan".[174]
Bayazid Bastami
Bayazid Bastami was a recognized and influential Sufi personality from the Tayfuriyya order.[175] Bastami was born in 804 inBastam.[176] Bayazid is regarded for his devout commitment to theSunnah and his dedication to fundamental Islamic principals and practices.
ShaykhAbdul Qadir Gilani (1077–1166) was a Mesopotamian-bornHanbali jurist and prominent Sufi scholar based in Baghdad, with Persian roots. Gilani spent his early life in Na'if, a town just East of Baghdad, also the town of his birth. There, he pursued the study ofHanbali law.Abu Saeed Mubarak Makhzoomi gave Gilani lessons infiqh. He was given lessons abouthadith by Abu Bakr ibn Muzaffar. He was given lessons about Tafsir by Abu Muhammad Ja'far, a commentator. His Sufi spiritual instructor was Abu'l-Khair Hammad ibn Muslim al-Dabbas. After completing his education, Gilani left Baghdad. He spent twenty-five years as a reclusive wanderer in the desert regions of Iraq. In 1127, Gilani returned to Baghdad and began to preach to the public. He joined the teaching staff of the school belonging to his own teacher,Abu Saeed Mubarak Makhzoomi, and was popular with students. In the morning he taught hadith andtafsir, and in the afternoon held discourse on the science of the heart and the virtues of the Quran. He is the founder of theQadiriyya order, of which its eponym is his patronym.[177]
Abul Hasan ash-Shadhili
Abul Hasan ash-Shadhili (died 1258) was the founder of theShadhiliyya order, and introduceddhikr jahri (the remembrance of God out loud, as opposed to the silentdhikr). He taught that his followers need not abstain from what Islam has not forbidden, but to be grateful for what God has bestowed upon them,[178] in contrast to the majority of Sufis, who preach to deny oneself and to destroy the ego-self (nafs). The "Order of Patience" (Tariqus-Sabr), Shadhiliyya is formulated to be "Order of Gratitude" (Tariqush-Shukr).Imam Shadhili also gave eighteen valuablehizbs (litanies) to his followers, out of which the notableHizb al-Bahr[179] is recited worldwide even today.
Moinuddin Chishti (1141–1236), known asGharīb Nawāz ("Benefactor of the Poor"), was the most famous Sufi saint of the Chishti Order. Moinuddin Chishti introduced and established the order in the Indian subcontinent. The initial spiritual chain or silsila of the Chishti order in India, comprising Moinuddin Chishti,Bakhtiyar Kaki,Baba Farid,Nizamuddin Auliya (each successive person being the disciple of the previous one), constitutes the great Sufi saints of Indian history. Moinuddin Chishtī turned towards India, reputedly after a dream in which Muhammad blessed him to do so. After a brief stay at Lahore, he reachedAjmer along with SultanShahāb-ud-Din Muhammad Ghori, and settled down there. In Ajmer, he attracted a substantial following, acquiring a great deal of respect amongst the residents of the city. Moinuddin Chishtī practiced the SufiSulh-e-Kul (peace to all) concept to promote understanding between Muslims and non-Muslims.[180]
Bahauddin Naqshband
Bahauddin Naqshband (1318–1389) was a prominent Sufi master of the 14th century who founded theNaqshbandi Sufi order. Born in the village of Qasr-i Hinduvan near Bukhara, Uzbekistan, he was a descendant of the Prophet Muhammad. His early life was marked by a deep spiritual inclination. He sought out the guidance of renowned Sufi teachers and quickly demonstrated exceptional talent and understanding. His primary teacher wasMohammad Baba As-Samasi, who initiated him into the spiritual path. His approach to Sufism emphasized inner contemplation, discipline, and a focus on the unseen. He advocated for a balanced lifestyle, combining spiritual practices with worldly responsibilities. His teachings were rooted in the Quran and the Sunnah, and he emphasized the importance of following the example of the Prophet Muhammad.
The Naqshbandi order became one of the most influential Sufi orders in Islamic history. It spread throughout Central Asia, the Middle East, and eventually to South Asia and the West. The order's emphasis on spiritual discipline, inner work, and social engagement resonated with many seekers.
Ahmed Tijani (1737–1815), in Arabic سيدي أحمد التجاني (Sidi Ahmed Tijani), was the founder of theTijaniyya Sufi order. He was born in a Berber family,[181][182][183] inAïn Madhi, present-day Algeria, and died at the age of 78 in Fez.[184][185]
Al-Ghazālī
al-Ghazali (c. 1058 – 1111) was a Sunni Muslim polymath.[186] He was a prominent Sufi, jurisconsult, legal theoretician, mufti, philosopher, theologian, logician and mystic.[187] He is considered to be the 11th century'smujaddid, a renewer of the faith, who appears once every 100 years.[188] Al-Ghazali's works were so highly acclaimed by his contemporaries that he was awarded the honorific title "Proof of Islam".[189] He was a prominentmujtahid in theShafi'i school of law.[190] His magnum opus was Iḥyā’ ‘ulūm ad-dīn ("The Revival of the Religious Sciences").[191] His works include Tahāfut al-Falāsifa ("Incoherence of the Philosophers"), a landmark in the history of philosophy.[192]
Ibn 'Arabi (or Ibn al-'Arabi) (AH 561 – AH 638; 1165–1240) was one of the most influential Sufis, revered for his profound spiritual insight, refined taste, and deep knowledge of God. Over the centuries, he has been honored with the title "The Grand Master" (Arabic: الشيخ الأكبر). Ibn Arabi founded the Sufi order known as "Al Akbariyya" (Arabic: الأكبرية), which remains active to this day. The order, based in Cairo, continues to spread his teachings and principles through its own sheikh. Ibn Arabi's writings, especiallyal-Futuhat al-Makkiyya and Fusus al-Hikam, have been studied within all Sufi orders as the clearest expression oftawhid (Divine Unity), though because of their recondite nature they were often only given to initiates. His teachings later became known as the school ofwahdat al-wujud (the Oneness of Being). He himself considered his writings to have been divinely inspired. As he expressed the way to one of his close disciples, his legacy is that "you should never ever abandon your servant-hood (ubudiyya), and that there may never be in your soul a longing for any existing thing".[199]
Mansur Al-Hallaj
Mansur Al-Hallaj (died 922) is renowned for his claim,Ana-l-Haqq ("I am the Truth"), his ecstatic Sufism and state-trial. His refusal to recant this utterance, which was regarded asapostasy, led to a long trial. He was imprisoned for 11 years in a Baghdad prison, before being tortured and publicly beheaded on March 26, 922. He is still revered by Sufis for his willingness to embrace torture and death rather than recant. It is said that during his prayers, he would say "O Lord! You are the guide of those who are passing through the Valley of Bewilderment. If I am a heretic, enlarge my heresy".[200]
Yusuf Abu al-Haggag
Yusuf Abu al-Haggag (c. 1150 – c. 1245) was a Sufi scholar and sheikh preaching principally inLuxor, Egypt.[201] He devoted himself to knowledge,asceticism and worship.[202] In his pursuits, he earned the nickname "Father of the Pilgrim". His birthday is celebrated today annually in Luxor, with people convening at theAbu Haggag Mosque.
Al-Risala al-Qushayriyya (The Qushayrian Treatise) byal-Qushayri (d. 465/1072), an indispensable reference book for those who study and specialize in Islamic mysticism. It is considered as one of the most popular Sufi manuals and has served as a primary textbook for many generations of Sufi novices to the present.[210]
Ihya' 'Ulum al-Din (The Revival of the Sciences of Religion) byal-Ghazali (d. 505/1111). It is widely regarded as one of the most complete compendiums of Muslim thought and practice ever written, and is among the most influential books in thehistory of Islam. As its title indicates, it is a sustained attempt to putvigour and liveliness back into Muslim religious discourse.[211]
The persecution of Sufism and Sufi Muslims over the course of centuries has included acts ofreligious discrimination,persecution andviolence, such as the destruction of Sufi shrines, tombs, and mosques, suppression of Sufi orders, and discrimination against adherents of Sufism in a number ofMuslim-majority countries.[229] TheRepublic of Turkey banned all Sufi orders and abolished their institutions in 1925, after Sufis opposed the new secular order. TheIslamic Republic of Iran has harassed Shia Sufis, reportedly for their lack of support for the government doctrine of "governance of the jurist" (i.e., that the supreme Shiitejurist should be the nation's political leader).
A choreographed Sufi performance on a Friday in Sudan
Sufi mysticism has long exercised a fascination upon the Western world, and especially its Orientalist scholars.[235] In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, European orientalists treated Sufism and Islam as distinct subjects, leading to "an over-emphasis on the translation of classical Sufi mystical literature" in the academic study of Sufism at the expense of the lived practices in Islam, as well as a separation of Sufism from its Islamic roots in the development of Sufism as a religious form in the West.[236][237] Figures like Rumi have become well known in the United States, where Sufism is perceived as a peaceful and apolitical form of Islam.[235][238]Seyyed Hossein Nasr states that the preceding theories are false according to the point of view of Sufism.[239] The contemporary amateur historian David Livingstone writes:
"Sufi practices are merely attempts to attain psychic states—for their own sake—though it is claimed the pursuit represents seeking closeness to God, and that the achieved magical powers are gifts of advanced spirituality. For several reasons, Sufism was generally looked upon as heretical among Muslim scholars. Among the deviations introduced by the Sufis was the tendency to believe the daily prayers to be only for the masses who had not achieved deeper spiritual knowledge, but could be disregarded by those more advanced spiritually. The Sufis introduced the practice of congregational Dhikr, or religious oral exercises, consisting of a continuous repetition of the name of God. These practices were unknown to early Islam, and consequently regarded as Bid'ah, meaning "unfounded innovation". Also, many of the Sufis adopted the practice of total Tawakkul, or complete "trust" or "dependence" on God, by avoiding all kinds of labor or commerce, refusing medical care when they were ill, and living by begging."[240]
The Islamic Institute in Mannheim, Germany, which works towards the integration of Europe and Muslims, sees Sufism as particularly suited for interreligious dialogue and intercultural harmonisation in democratic and pluralist societies; it has described Sufism as a symbol of tolerance andhumanism—nondogmatic, flexible and non-violent.[241] According toPhilip Jenkins, a professor atBaylor University, "the Sufis are much more than tactical allies for the West: they are, potentially, the greatest hope for pluralism and democracy within Muslim nations." Likewise, several governments and organisations have advocated the promotion of Sufism as a means of combating intolerant andviolent strains of Islam.[242] For example, the Chinese and Russian[243] governments openly favor Sufism as the best means of protecting against Islamist subversion. The British government, especially following the7 July 2005 London bombings, has favoured Sufi groups in its battle againstMuslim extremist currents. The influentialRAND Corporation, an American think-tank, issued a major report titled "Building Moderate Muslim Networks", which urged the US government to form links with and bolster[244] Muslim groups that opposed Islamist extremism. The report stressed the Sufi role as moderate traditionalists open to change, and thus as allies against violence.[245][246] News organisations such as the BBC, Economist and Boston Globe have also seen Sufism as a means to deal with violent Muslim extremists.[247]
Idries Shah states that Sufism is universal in nature, its roots predating the rise of Islam and Christianity.[248] He quotesSuhrawardi as saying that "this (Sufism) was a form of wisdom known to and practiced by a succession of sages including the mysterious ancientHermes of Egypt.", and thatIbn al-Farid "stresses that Sufism lies behind and before systematization; that 'our wine existed before what you call the grape and the vine' (the school and the system)..."[249] Shah's views have however been rejected by modern scholars.[7] Such modern trends of neo-Sufis in Western countries allow non-Muslims to receive "instructions on following the Sufi path", not without opposition by Muslims who consider such instruction outside the sphere of Islam.[250]
Numerous comparisons have been made between Sufism and the mystic components of someEastern religions.
The tenth-century Persian polymathAl-Biruni in his bookTahaqeeq Ma Lilhind Min Makulat Makulat Fi Aliaqbal Am Marzula (Critical Study of Indian Speech: Rationally Acceptable or Rejected) discusses the similarity of some Sufism concepts with aspects of Hinduism, such as: Atma with ruh, tanasukh with reincarnation, Mokhsha with Fanafillah, Ittihad with Nirvana: union between Paramatma in Jivatma, Avatar or Incarnation with Hulul, Vedanta with Wahdatul Ujud, Mujahadah with Sadhana.[citation needed]
The ninth-century Iranian mysticBayazid Bostami is alleged to have imported certain concepts from Hindusim into his version of Sufism under the conceptual umbrella ofbaqaa, meaning perfection.[254]Ibn al-Arabi andMansur al-Hallaj both referred to Muhammad as having attained perfection and titled him asAl-Insān al-Kāmil.[255][256][257][258][259][260] Inayat Khan believed that the God worshipped by Sufis is not specific to any particular religion or creed, but is the same God worshipped by people of all beliefs. This God is not limited by any name, whether it be Allah, God, Gott, Dieu, Khuda, Brahma, or Bhagwan.[261]
There is evidence that Sufism influenced the development of some schools of Jewish philosophy and ethics. In the first writing of this kind, we seeKitab al-Hidayah ila Fara'iḍ al-Ḳulub,Duties of the Heart, ofBahya ibn Paquda. This book was translated byJudah ibn Tibbon intoHebrew under the titleChovot HaLevavot.[262]
The precepts prescribed by theTorah number 613 only; those dictated by the intellect are innumerable.
— Kremer, Alfred Von. 1868. "Notice sur Sha‘rani".Journal Asiatique 11 (6): 258.
In the ethical writings of the SufisAl-Kusajri andAl-Harawi there are sections which treat of the same subjects as those treated in theChovot ha-Lebabot and which bear the same titles: e.g., "Bab al-Tawakkul"; "Bab al-Taubah"; "Bab al-Muḥasabah"; "Bab al-Tawaḍu'"; "Bab al-Zuhd". In the ninth gate, Baḥya directly quotes sayings of the Sufis, whom he callsPerushim. However, the author of theChovot HaLevavot did not go so far as to approve of the asceticism of the Sufis, although he showed a marked predilection for their ethical principles.
Abraham Maimonides, the son of the Jewish philosopherMaimonides, believed that Sufi practices and doctrines continue the tradition of the biblical prophets.[263]
Abraham Maimonides' principal work was originally composed inJudeo-Arabic and entitled "כתאב כפאיה אלעאבדין"Kitāb Kifāyah al-'Ābidīn (A Comprehensive Guide for the Servants of God). From the extant surviving portion it is conjectured that the treatise was three times as long as his father'sGuide for the Perplexed. In the book, he evidences a great appreciation for, and affinity to, Sufism. Followers of his path continued to foster a Jewish-Sufi form of pietism for at least a century, and he is rightly considered the founder of this pietistic school, which was centered inEgypt.[264]
The followers of this path, which they calledHasidism (not to be confused with the [later]JewishHasidic movement) or Sufism (Tasawwuf), practiced spiritual retreats, solitude, fasting and sleep deprivation. The Jewish Sufis maintained their ownbrotherhood, guided by a religious leader like a Sufi sheikh.[265]
The Jewish Encyclopedia, in its entry on Sufism, states that the revival of Jewish mysticism in Muslim countries is probably due to the spread of Sufism in the same geographical areas. The entry details many parallels to Sufic concepts found in the writings of prominentKabbalists during theGolden age of Jewish culture in Spain.[266][267]
The 13th century Persian poetRumi is considered one of the most influential figures of Sufism, as well as one of the greatest poets of all time. He has become one of the most widely read poets in the United States, thanks largely to the interpretative translations published byColeman Barks.[268]Elif Şafak's novelThe Forty Rules of Love is a fictionalized account of Rumi's encounter with the Persian dervishShams Tabrizi.[269]
Sama is regarded as an important element in different Sufi orders. In South Asia, it is affiliated mostly withChishti Order. It develops into a distinct art form, especially during the reign ofKhwaja Amir Khusrau and his contemporary Sufi masters, such asKhwaja Nizamuddin Auliya and others.[271] Spiritual experiences were desired by Sufis through Sama, listening to poetry or Islamic mystical verses with the use of different musical instruments, aiming to attain ecstasy in divine love of Allah and hisProphet.[272]
Many painters and visual artists have explored the Sufi motif through various disciplines. One of the outstanding pieces in theBrooklyn Museum's Islamic gallery has been the museum's associate curator of Islamic art, is a large 19th- or early-20th-century portrayal of theBattle of Karbala painted by Abbas Al-Musavi,[273] which was a violent episode in the disagreement between the Sunni and Shia branches of Islam; during this battle,Husayn ibn Ali, a pious grandson of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, died and is considered amartyr in Islam.[274]
In July 2016, at International Sufi Festival held in Noida Film City, UP, India, H.E. Abdul Basit who was the High Commissioner of Pakistan to India at that time, while inaugurating the exhibition of Farkhananda Khan ‘Fida’ said, "There is no barrier of words or explanation about the paintings or rather there is a soothing message of brotherhood, peace in Sufism".[275]
References
Notes
^The following are among definitions of Sufism quoted in an early Sufi treatise byAbu Nasr as-Sarraj: • "Sufism is that you should be with God—without any attachment." (Junayd of Baghdad) • "Sufism consists of abandoning oneself to God in accordance with what God wills." (Ruwaym ibn Ahmad) • "Sufism is that you should not possess anything nor should anything possess you." (Samnun) • "Sufism consists of entering every exalted quality (khulq) and leaving behind every despicable quality." (Abu Muhammad al-Jariri) • "Sufism is that at each moment the servant should be in accord with what is most appropriate (awla) at that moment." ('Amr ibn 'Uthman al-Makki)
^abcSchimmel, Annemarie."Sufism".Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved2018-06-26.Opposed to the dry casuistry of the lawyer-divines, the mystics nevertheless scrupulously observed the commands of the divine law. [...] the mystics belonged to all schools of Islamic law and theology of the times.
^abSedgwick, Mark (2012). "Neo-Sufism". In Hammer, Olav; Rothstein, Mikael (eds.).The Cambridge Companion to New Religious Movements. Cambridge University Press.
^abVoll, John O. (2009)."Sufism. ṢūfĪ Orders.". In Esposito, John L. (ed.).The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Archived fromthe original on November 24, 2012.
^abcdeChittick, William C. (2009)."Sufism. ṢūfĪ Thought and Practice". In Esposito, John L. (ed.).The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Archived fromthe original on June 3, 2010.
^abcdErnst, Carl W. (2004). "Tasawwuf". In Martin, Richard C. (ed.).Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World. MacMillan Reference USA.
^Huss, Boaz. "“A Remarkable Resemblance:” Comparative Mysticism and the Study of Sufism and Kabbalah." Esoteric Transfers and Constructions: Judaism, Christianity, and Islam (2021): 249–272.
^Titus Burckhardt,Art of Islam: Language and Meaning (Bloomington: World Wisdom, 2009), p. 223
^Seyyed Hossein Nasr,The Essential Seyyed Hossein Nasr, ed. William C. Chittick (Bloomington: World Wisdom, 2007), p. 74
^Martin Lings,What is Sufism? (Lahore: Suhail Academy, 2005; first imp. 1983, second imp. 1999), p.12: "Mystics on the other hand-and Sufism is a kind of mysticism-are by definition concerned above all with 'the mysteries of the Kingdom of Heaven'".
^Compare:Nasr, Seyyed Hossein (2007).Chittick, William C. (ed.).The Essential Seyyed Hossein Nasr. The perennial philosophy series. Bloomington, Indiana: World Wisdom, Inc. p. 74.ISBN9781933316383. Retrieved2017-06-24.Sufism is the esoteric or inward dimension of Islam [...] Islamic esoterism is, however [...] not exhausted by Sufism [...] but the main manifestation and the most important and central crystallization of Islamic esotericism is to be found in Sufism.
^Shah 1964–2014, p. 30. "According to Idries Shah, Sufism is as old as Adam and is the essence of all religions, monotheistic or not." SeePerennial philosophy
^abNasr, Seyyed Hossein (2008).The garden of truth: the vision and promise of Sufism, Islam's mystical tradition. Harper Collins. pp. 45–3736–45-3736.ISBN978-0061625992.
^Carl W. Ernst, Bruce B. Lawrence,Sufi Martyrs of Love: The Chishti Order in South Asia and Beyond, Palgrave Macmillan, 2002, p. 22,ISBN1403960275, 9781403960276
^Dagli, C., Ayduz, S. (2014). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Science, and Technology in Islam. Vereinigtes Königreich: Oxford University Press. p. 267
^abTrimingham, J. Spencer (1998).The Sufi Orders in Islam. Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-512058-5.
^Mário Alves da Silva Filho (2012).A Mística Islâmica emTerræ Brasilis: o Sufismo e as Ordens Sufis em São Paulo [Islamic Mystique in Terræ Brasilis: Sufism and Sufi Orders in São Paulo](PDF) (Dissertation (Master of Science in Religion)) (in Portuguese). São Paulo: PONTIFÍCIA UNIVERSIDADE CATÓLICA DE SÃO PAULO PUC/SP. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 2015-04-14.
^Daftary |Farhad |2013 |A History of Shi'i Islam |New York NY |I.B. Tauris and Co ltd. |page 28 |ISBN9780300035315 |4/8/2015
^Michael S. PittmanClassical Spirituality in Contemporary America: The Confluence and Contribution of G.I. Gurdjieff and Sufism Bloomsbury PublishingISBN978-1-441-13113-3
^Massington, L.; Radtke, B.; Chittick, W.C.; Jong, F. de; Lewisohn, L.; Zarcone, Th.; Ernst, C.; Aubin, Françoise (2012). "Taṣawwuf". In P. Bearman; Th. Bianquis; C.E. Bosworth; E. van Donzel; W.P. Heinrichs (eds.).Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.). Brill.doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_1188.q.v. "Hanafi," "Hanbali," and "Maliki," and under "mysticism in..." for each.
^abTitus Burckhardt,Introduction to Sufi Doctrine (Bloomington: World Wisdom, 2008, p. 4, note 2
^Martin Lings,What is Sufism? (Lahore: Suhail Academy, 2005; first imp. 1983, second imp. 1999), pp. 16–17
^Rozina Ali, "The Erasure of Islam from the Poetry of Rumi,"The New Yorker, Jan. 5 2017
^For the pre-modern era, seeVincent J. Cornell,Realm of the Saint: Power and Authority in Moroccan Sufism,ISBN978-0-292-71209-6; and for the colonial era, Knut Vikyr,Sufi and Scholar on the Desert Edge: Muhammad B. Oali Al-Sanusi and His Brotherhood,ISBN978-0-8101-1226-1.
^Leonard Lewisohn,The Legacy of Medieval Persian Sufism, Khaniqahi-Nimatullahi Publications, 1992.
^Knysh, Alexander (2010). "Sufism". In Irwin, Robert (ed.).The New Cambridge History of Islam. Volume 4: Islamic Cultures and Societies to the End of the Eighteenth Century. Cambridge University Press. pp. 60–61.
^Masatoshi Kisaichi, "The Burhami order and Islamic resurgence in modern Egypt."Popular Movements and Democratization in the Islamic World, pg. 57. Part of the New Horizons in Islamic Studies series. Ed. Masatoshi Kisaichi. London: Routledge, 2006.ISBN9781134150618
^Muhammad Emin Er,Laws of the Heart: A Practical Introduction to the Sufi Path, Shifâ Publishers, 2008,ISBN978-0-9815196-1-6
^Abdullah Nur ad-Din Durkee,The School of the Shadhdhuliyyah, Volume One: Orisons; see also Shaykh Muhammad Hisham Kabbani,Classical Islam and the Naqshbandi Sufi Tradition,ISBN978-1-930409-23-1, which reproduces the spiritual lineage (silsila) of a living Sufi master.
^See Muhammad Emin Er,Laws of the Heart: A Practical Introduction to the Sufi Path, Shifâ Publishers, 2008,ISBN978-0-9815196-1-6, for a detailed description of the practices and preconditions of this sort of spiritual retreat.
^See examples provided by Muzaffar Ozak inIrshad: Wisdom of a Sufi Master, addressed to a general audience rather than specifically to his own students.
^Knysh, Alexander. "Sufism".Islamic cultures and societies to the end of the eighteenth century. Irwin, Robert, 1946–. Cambridge.ISBN9781139056144.OCLC742957142.
^Shaykh Muhammad Hisham Kabbani,Classical Islam and the Naqshbandi Sufi Tradition,ISBN978-1-930409-23-1
^Silvers, Laury (2013-09-01). "al-Fatḥ al-Mawṣilī".Encyclopaedia of Islam, THREE.(...) uncle of the famous early Persian Ṣūfī Junayd al-Baghdādī (d. 298/911).
^For an introduction to the normative creed of Islam as espoused by the consensus of scholars, see Hamza Yusuf,The Creed of Imam al-Tahawi,ISBN978-0-9702843-9-6, and Ahmad Ibn Muhammad Maghnisawi,Imam Abu Hanifa's Al-Fiqh Al-Akbar Explained,ISBN978-1-933764-03-0.
^The meaning ofcertainty in this context is emphasized in Muhammad Emin Er,The Soul of Islam: Essential Doctrines and Beliefs, Shifâ Publishers, 2008,ISBN978-0-9815196-0-9.
^See in particular the introduction by T. J. Winter to Abu Hamid Muhammad al-Ghazali,Al-Ghazali on Disciplining the Soul and on Breaking the Two Desires: Books XXII and XXIII of the Revival of the Religious Sciences,ISBN978-0-946621-43-9.
^abcdHussain, Zahid (22 April 2012)."Is it permissible to listen to Qawwali?".TheSunniWay. Retrieved12 June 2020.Unfortunately, the name "Qawwali" is now only used if there is an addition of musical instruments and at times with the "add on" of dancing and whirling depending on the mood of those present. Musical instruments are forbidden. And so is dancing if it is with intent.
^Desai, Siraj (13 January 2011)."Moulana Rumi and Whirling Zikr".askmufti. Retrieved12 June 2020.However, later on this Simaa' was modernized to include dancing and music, thus giving rise to the concept of "whirling dervishes". This is a Bid'ah and is not the creation of orthodox Sufism.
^Abidin, Ibn.Radd al-Muhtar. Vol. 6. Darul Ma'rifa. p. 396.
^abMuhammad bin Mubarak Kirmani.Siyar-ul-Auliya: History of Chishti Silsila (in Urdu). Translated by Ghulam Ahmed Biryan. Lahore: Mushtaq Book Corner.
^Auliya, Nizamuddin (31 December 1996).Fawa'id al-Fu'aad: Spiritual and Literal Discourses. Translated by Z. H. Faruqi. D.K. Print World Ltd.ISBN9788124600429.
^John Renard,Friends of God: Islamic Images of Piety, Commitment, and Servanthood (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2008); Idem.,Tales of God Friends: Islamic Hagiography in Translation (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2009), et passim.
^Radtke, B.; Lory, P.; Zarcone, Th.; DeWeese, D.; Gaborieau, M.; Denny, F.M.; Aubin, Françoise; Hunwick, J.O.; Mchugh, N. (2012). "Walī". In P. Bearman; Th. Bianquis; C.E. Bosworth; E. van Donzel; W.P. Heinrichs (eds.).Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.). Brill.doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_1335.
^Kramer, Robert S.; Lobban, Richard A. Jr.; Fluehr-Lobban, Carolyn (2013).Historical Dictionary of the Sudan. Historical Dictionaries of Africa (4 ed.). Lanham, Maryland, USA: Scarecrow Press, an imprint of Rowman & Littlefield. p. 361.ISBN978-0-8108-6180-0. Retrieved2 May 2015.QUBBA. The Arabic name for the tomb of a holy man... A qubba is usually erected over the grave of a holy man identified variously aswali (saint), faki, or shaykh since, according to folk Islam, this is where his baraka [blessings] is believed to be strongest...
^Radtke, B., "Saint", in:Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān, General Editor: Jane Dammen McAuliffe, Georgetown University, Washington, D.C.
^J. van Ess,Theologie und Gesellschaft im 2. und 3. Jahrhundert Hidschra. Eine Geschichte des religiösen Denkens im frühen Islam, II (Berlin-New York, 1992), pp. 89–90
^B. Radtke and J. O’Kane,The Concept of Sainthood in Early Islamic Mysticism (London, 1996), pp. 109–110
^B. Radtke,Drei Schriften des Theosophen von Tirmid̲, ii (Beirut-Stuttgart, 1996), pp. 68–69
^abTitus Burckhardt,Art of Islam: Language and Meaning (Bloomington: World Wisdom, 2009), p. 99
^abGardet, L. (2012). "Karāma". In P. Bearman; Th. Bianquis; C.E. Bosworth; E. van Donzel; W.P. Heinrichs (eds.).Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.). Brill.doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0445.
^Jonathan A.C. Brown, "Faithful Dissenters,"Journal of Sufi Studies 1 (2012), p. 123
^abMuhammad Emin Er,Laws of the Heart: A Practical Introduction to the Sufi Order, Shifâ Publishers, 2008,ISBN978-0-9815196-1-6
^For a systematic description of the diseases of the heart that are to be overcome in order for this perspective to take root, see Hamza Yusuf,Purification of the Heart: Signs, Symptoms and Cures of the Spiritual Diseases of the Heart,ISBN978-1-929694-15-0.
^Concerning this, and for an excellent discussion of the concept of attraction (jadhba), see especially the Introduction to Abdullah Nur ad-Din Durkee,The School of the Shadhdhuliyyah, Volume One: Orisons,ISBN977-00-1830-9.
^Silvers, Laury (2013-09-01)."al-Fatḥ al-Mawṣilī".Encyclopaedia of Islam, THREE.(...) uncle of the famous early Persian Ṣūfī Junayd al-Baghdādī (d. 298/911).
^Bangstad, Sindre (2007).Global Flows, Local Appropriations: Facets of Secularisation and Re-Islamization Among Contemporary Cape Muslims. Amsterdam University Press.ISBN978-90-5356-015-0.
^Akyeampong, Emmanuel Kwaku; Henry Louis Gates Jr. (2012-02-02).Dictionary of African Biography. OUP USA.ISBN978-0-19-538207-5.
^Böwering, Gerhard. "ḠAZĀLĪ". Encyclopædia Iranica. Retrieved 17 December 2012.
^"Ghazali, al-". The Columbia Encyclopedia. Retrieved 17 December 2012.
^William Montgomery Watt, Al-Ghazali: The Muslim Intellectual, p. 180. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1963.
^Janin, Hunt (2005). The Pursuit of Learning in the Islamic World. McFarland. p. 83. ISBN 0786419547.
^Al Beirawi, Abu Ismael (12 April 2016). Essays on Ijtihad in the 21st Century. CreateSpace. p. 35. ISBN 9781539995036.
^Sonn, Tamara (1996-10-10). Interpreting Islam: Bandali Jawzi's Islamic Intellectual History. Oxford University Press. pp. 30
^Griffel, Frank (2016). "Al-Ghazali". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2016 ed.)
^abBhattacharya, Ananda (2008). "Madariya Sufi Silsila Their Distinctive Characteristics and Relations with the Indian Powers".Proceedings of the Indian History Congress.69:384–402.JSTOR44147203.
^Rana Safvi (2022).In Search of the Divine: Living Histories of Sufism in India.India:Hachette India (Registered name: Hachette Book Publishing India Pvt. Ltd) An Hachette UK company. p. 122.ISBN9789393701169.Sheikh Shihabuddin Abu Hafs Suhrawardi was a great scholar who wrote the Awarif al-Ma'arif (The Gifts of Spiritual Perceptions), which became one of the most popular Sufi books for seekers to read, memorize, and study regularly.
^"Shihabuddin Abu Hafs 'Umar al-Suhrawardi".anqa.co.uk. Anqa Publishing. Archived fromthe original on 4 February 2023.One of the great teaching masters, who developed his uncle's methods, Abu Hafs was responsible for establishing the order that took his name, theSuhrawardiyya. He wrote 'Awarif al-ma'arif (which can be translated variously as The Benefits of the Spiritually Learned or The Gifts of Spiritual Perceptions), one of the most popular Sufi textbooks for later generations.
^Zekeriya Bașkal (2013).Yunus Emre: The Sufi Poet in Love. Blue Dome Press. p. 25.ISBN9781935295914.We should also bear in mind that Sufis emphasize inner development, the inner esoteric meanings of the sacred texts, and the imagination.
^Geaves, Ron (2014), Ridgeon, Lloyd (ed.),"Sufism in the West",The Cambridge Companion to Sufism, Cambridge Companions to Religion, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 233–256,ISBN978-1-107-01830-3, retrieved2022-04-30"Throughout the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, European orientalists would develop the thesis that Sufism and Islam were separate religious phenomena. The effect on Sufism in the West was twofold. The first impacted on the academic study of Sufism and the second on the development of Sufism as a religious form in Europe and North America. The separation of Sufism from its Islamic roots led to an over-emphasis on the translation of classical Sufi mystical literature at the expense of the lived religion practised throughout the Muslim world and perceived as part and parcel of a normative Islamic worldview, even if deeply contested in the Muslim majority world."
^Rabasa, Angel; Benard, Cheryl; Schwartz, Lowell H.; Sickle, Peter (2007)."Building Moderate Muslim Networks"(PDF).RAND Corporation.Archived(PDF) from the original on 2014-05-31. Retrieved26 June 2014.
^Munn, Richard C. (January–March 1969). "Reviewed work(s): The Sufis by Idries Shah".Journal of the American Oriental Society.89 (1). American Oriental Society:279–281.doi:10.2307/598339.JSTOR598339.
^A Sufi-Jewish Dialogue: Philosophy and Mysticism in Bahya ibn Paquda's Duties of the Heart, Diana Lobel
^See Sefer Hammaspiq, "Happerishuth", Chapter 11 ("Ha-mmaʿaḇāq") s.v. hithbonen efo be-masoreth mufla'a zo, citing the Talmudic explanation of Jeremiah 13:27 in Chagigah 5b; in Rabbi Yaakov Wincelberg's translation,The Way of Serving God (Feldheim), p. 429 and above, p. 427. Also see ibid., Chapter 10 ("Iqquḇim"), s.v. wa-halo yoḏeʾaʿ atta; inThe Way of Serving God, p. 371.
^Loubet, Mireille (15 October 2000)."Jewish pietism of the Sufi type".Bulletin du Centre de Recherche Français À Jérusalem (7). bcrfj.revues.org:87–91. Retrieved26 August 2015.
Ernst, Carl W. (2010). "Muḥammad as the Pole of Existence". In Brockopp, Jonathan E. (ed.).The Cambridge Companion to Muhammad. Cambridge University Press. pp. 123–138.ISBN9781139828383.
Rahimi, Sadeq (September 2007). "Intimate Exteriority: Sufi Space as Sanctuary for Injured Subjectivities in Turkey".Journal of Religion and Health.46 (3). Springer:409–421.doi:10.1007/s10943-006-9073-2.JSTOR27513026.S2CID26296782.
-W.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
