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Sturm und Drang (/ˌʃtʊərmʊntˈdræŋ,-ˈdrɑːŋ/,[1]German:[ˈʃtʊʁmʔʊntˈdʁaŋ]; usually translated as "storm and stress")[2] was a proto-Romantic movement inGerman literature andmusic that occurred between the late 1760s and early 1780s. Within the movement, individualsubjectivity and, in particular, extremes of emotion were given free expression in reaction to the perceived constraints of rationalism imposed by theEnlightenment and associatedaesthetic movements. The period is named afterFriedrich Maximilian Klinger'splay of the same name, which was first performed byAbel Seyler'sfamed theatrical company in 1777. Seyler's son-in-lawJohann Anton Leisewitz wrote the early and quintessentialSturm und Drang play,Julius of Taranto, with its theme of the conflict between two brothers and the woman loved by both.
Significant figures wereJohann Anton Leisewitz,Jakob Michael Reinhold Lenz,H. L. Wagner,Friedrich Maximilian Klinger, andJohann Georg Hamann.Johann Wolfgang von Goethe andFriedrich Schiller were notable proponents of the movement early in their lives, although they ended their period of association with it by initiating what would becomeWeimar Classicism.
French neoclassicism (includingFrench neoclassical theatre), a movement beginning in the earlyBaroque, with its emphasis on therational, was the principal target of rebellion for adherents of theSturm und Drang movement. For them, sentimentality and anobjective view of life gave way to emotional turbulence and individuality, and Age of Enlightenment ideals such asrationalism,empiricism, anduniversalism no longer captured the human condition; emotional extremes and subjectivity became the vogue during the late 18th century.
The phraseSturm und Drang first appeared as the title ofa play byFriedrich Maximilian Klinger, written forAbel Seyler'sSeylersche Schauspiel-Gesellschaft and published in 1776.[3] The setting of the play is the unfoldingAmerican Revolution, in which the author gives violent expression to difficult emotions and extols individuality and subjectivity over the prevailing order of rationalism. Though it is argued that literature and music associated withSturm und Drang predate this seminal work, it was from this point that German artists became distinctly self-conscious of a new aesthetic. This seemingly spontaneous movement became associated with a wide array of German authors and composers of the mid-to-lateClassical period.[4]
Sturm und Drang came to be associated with literature or music aimed at shocking the audience or imbuing them with extremes of emotion. The movement soon gave way toWeimar Classicism and earlyRomanticism, whereupon asocio-political concern for greater human freedom from despotism was incorporated along with a religious treatment of all things natural.[5]
There is much debate regarding whose work should or should not be included in the canon ofSturm und Drang. One point of view would limit the movement toGoethe,Johann Gottfried Herder,Jakob Michael Reinhold Lenz, and their direct German associates writing works of fiction and/or philosophy between 1770 and the early 1780s.[6] The alternative perspective is that of a literary movement inextricably linked to simultaneous developments in prose, poetry, and drama, extending its direct influence throughout the German-speaking lands until the end of the 18th century. Nevertheless, the originators of the movement came to view it as a time of premature exuberance that was then abandoned in favor of often conflicting artistic pursuits.[7]
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As a precursor toSturm und Drang, theliterary topos of theKraftmensch existed among dramatists beginning withF.M. Klinger. Its expression is seen in the radical degree to whichindividuality need appeal to no outside authority save the self nor be tempered byrationalism.[8] Theseideals are identical to those ofSturm und Drang, and it can be argued that the later name exists to catalog a number of parallel, co-influential movements inGerman literature rather than express anything substantially different from what German dramatists were achieving in the violent plays attributed to the Kraftmensch movement.
Major philosophical/theoretical influences on the literarySturm und Drang movement wereJohann Georg Hamann (especially the 1762 textAesthetica in nuce. Eine Rhapsodie in kabbalistischer Prose) andJohann Gottfried Herder, both from Königsberg, and both formerly in contact withImmanuel Kant. Significant theoretical statements ofSturm und Drang aesthetics by the movement's central dramatists themselves include Lenz'Anmerkungen übers Theater and Goethe'sVon deutscher Baukunst andZum Schäkespears Tag (sic). The most important contemporary document was the 1773 volumeVon deutscher Art und Kunst. Einige fliegende Blätter, a collection of essays that included commentaries by Herder on Ossian and Shakespeare, along with contributions by Goethe,Paolo Frisi (in translation from the Italian), andJustus Möser.
Theprotagonist in a typicalSturm und Drang stage work,poem, ornovel is driven to action—often violent action—not by pursuit of noble means nor by true motives, but byrevenge and greed.Goethe's unfinishedPrometheus exemplifies this along with the common ambiguity provided by juxtaposinghumanistic platitudes with outbursts of irrationality.[9] The literature ofSturm und Drang features an anti-aristocratic slant while seeking to elevate all things humble, natural, or intensely real (especially whatever is painful, tormenting, or frightening).
The story of hopeless love and eventual suicide presented inGoethe'ssentimental novelDie Leiden des jungen Werthers (1774) is an example of the author's tempered introspection regarding his love and torment.Friedrich Schiller's drama,Die Räuber (1781), provided the groundwork formelodrama to become a recognized dramatic form. The plot portrays a conflict between two aristocratic brothers, Franz and Karl Moor. Franz is cast as a villain attempting to cheat Karl out of his inheritance, though the motives for his action are complex and initiate a thorough investigation of good and evil. Both of these works are seminal examples ofSturm und Drang inGerman literature.
The absence or exclusion of women writers from accounts ofSturm und Drang can be taken as a consequence of the movement's and the period's masculinist ethos or as a failure of more recent literary criticism to engage with literary works by women—such asMarianne Ehrmann—that might merit inclusion.[10]
TheClassical period music (1750–1800) associated withSturm und Drang is predominantly written in aminor key to convey difficult or depressing sentiments. The principalthemes tend to be angular, with large leaps and unpredictablemelodic contours.Tempos anddynamics change rapidly and unpredictably in order to reflect strong changes of emotion. Pulsingrhythms andsyncopation are common, as are racing lines in thesoprano oralto registers. Writing for string instruments featurestremolo and sudden, dramatic dynamic changes and accents.
Musical theater became the meeting place of the literary and musical strands ofSturm und Drang, with the aim of increasing emotional expression inopera. The obligato recitative is a prime example. Here, orchestral accompaniment provides an intense underlay of vivid tone-painting to the solorecitative.Christoph Willibald Gluck's 1761 ballet,Don Juan, heralded the emergence ofSturm und Drang in music; the program notes explicitly indicated that the D minor finale was to evoke fear in the listener.Jean-Jacques Rousseau's 1762 play,Pygmalion (first performed in 1770) is a similarly important bridge in its use of underlyinginstrumental music to convey the mood of the spokendrama. The first example ofmelodrama,Pygmalion influencedGoethe and other important German literary figures.[11]
Nevertheless, relative to the influence ofSturm und Drang on literature, the influence onmusical composition was limited, and many efforts to label music as conforming to this trend are tenuous at best.Vienna, the center of German/Austrian music, was a cosmopolitan city with an international culture; therefore, melodically innovative and expressive works in minor keys byHaydn orMozart from this period should generally be considered first in the broader context of musical developments taking place throughout Europe. The clearest musical connections to the self-styledSturm und Drang movement can be found inopera and the early predecessors ofprogram music, such as Haydn'sFarewell Symphony.Beethoven,Weber, and evenSchubert have elements ofSturm und Drang.
ASturm und Drang period is often attributed to the works of the Austrian composerJoseph Haydn from the late 1760s to early 1770s. Works during this period often feature a newly impassioned or agitated element; however, Haydn never mentionsSturm und Drang as a motivation for his new compositional style,[12] and there remains an overarching adherence to classical form and motivic unity. Though Haydn may not have been consciously affirming the anti-rational ideals ofSturm und Drang, one can certainly perceive the influence of contemporary trends inmusical theatre on his instrumental works during this period.
Mozart'sSymphony No. 25 (the "Little" G-minor symphony, 1773) is one of only two minor-key symphonies by the composer. Beyond the atypical key, the symphony features rhythmic syncopation along with the jagged themes associated withSturm und Drang.[13] More interesting is the emancipation of thewind instruments in this piece, with the violins yielding to colorful bursts from the oboe and flute. However, it is likely the influence of numerous minor-key works by the Czech composerJohann Baptist Wanhal (a Viennese contemporary and acquaintance of Mozart), rather than a self-conscious adherence to a German literary movement, which is responsible for the harmonic and melodic experiments in the Symphony no. 25.[14]
The parallel movement in the visual arts can be witnessed in paintings of storms and shipwrecks showing the terror and irrational destruction wrought by nature. These pre-romantic works were fashionable in Germany from the 1760s on through the 1780s, illustrating a public audience for emotionally provocative artwork. Additionally, disturbing visions and portrayals ofnightmares were gaining an audience in Germany as evidenced byGoethe's possession and admiration of paintings byFuseli capable of "giving the viewer a good fright."[15] Notable artists includedJoseph Vernet,Caspar Wolf,Philip James de Loutherbourg, andHenry Fuseli.
TheSturm und Drang movement did not last long; according to Betty Waterhouse it began in 1771 and ended in 1778 (Waterhouse v). The rise of the middle class in the 18th century led to a change in the way society and social standings were looked at. Dramatists and writers saw the stage as a venue for critique and discussion of societal issues. French writerLouis-Sébastien Mercier suggested that drama be used to promote political ideas, a concept that would develop many years later. After theSeven Years' War, which ended in 1763, German spirit was extremely high and Germans felt a sense of importance on a grander stage. The aristocracy gained power as the ruling class, furthering the divide and increasing tensions between the classes (Liedner viii). With these new ideals came the sense that a new form of art capable of dethroning the extremely popular French neoclassicism was needed.Johann Georg Hamann, a noted German philosopher and a major promoter of theSturm und Drang movement, “defended the native culture of theVolk and maintained that language, the root of all our experience, was richer in images and more powerful prior to the ‘abstract’ eighteenth century” (Liedner viii). Germany did not have a common state entity; instead, the nation was broken into hundreds of small states. TheSturm und Drang movement was a reaction to this lack of political unity for the German people and often dealt with the idea of living life on a smaller scale and the desire to become a part of something bigger.
TheSturm und Drang movement also paid a lot of attention to the language of a piece of literature. It is no wonder thatShakespeare, with his brilliant use of language, originality with complex plot lines and subplots, and multifaceted characters from all social classes, was seen as a model for German writers (Wilson and Goldfarb 287). Many writers of theSturm und Drang movement considered themselves to be challengers of the Enlightenment. However, the movement is actually a continuation of theEnlightenment. ManySturm und Drang plays showed interest in how society affects the individual, a common theme in many Enlightenment plays as well. However,Sturm und Drang “makes its own distinctive contribution to 18th-century culture, bringing attention to the power of the environment as well as to the contradictory and self-defeating attitudes present in every segment of society” (Liedner ix). Far before its time, the divergent style ofSturm und Drang shrewdly explored depression and violence with an open plot structure (Liedner ix). TheSturm und Drang movement rebelled against all the rules of neoclassicism and the enlightenment, first recognizedShakespeare as a “genius” ofdramaturgy, and provided the foundation for 19th-centuryromanticism. Writers such asHeinrich Leopold Wagner,Goethe,Lenz,Klinger, andSchiller used episodic structure, violence, and mixed genres to comment on societal rules and morals, while doubting that anything would change. TheSturm und Drang movement was brief, but it set a fire that still burns intensely today.
Six main playwrights initiated and popularized theSturm und Drang movement: Leisewitz, Wagner, Goethe, Lenz, Klinger, and Schiller. The theatre directorAbel Seyler, the owner of theSeylersche Schauspiel-Gesellschaft, had an important role in promoting theSturm und Drang poets.
Johann Anton Leisewitz was born in Hanover in 1752 and studied law. He is remembered for his single complete play,Julius of Taranto (1776), which is considered the forerunner of Schiller's workThe Robbers (1781).[16] He was married to Sophie Seyler, the daughter of theatre directorAbel Seyler.
Heinrich Leopold Wagner was born inStrasbourg on February 19, 1747. He studied law and was a member of the literary group surroundingJohann Daniel Salzmann. He was a dramatist, producer, translator, and lawyer for the traveling Abel Seyler theatre company. Wagner was best known for his two plays,Die Reue nach der Tat (“The Remorse After the Deed”) in 1775 andDie Kindermorderin (“The Childmurderess”) in 1776.Child murder was a very popular topic in the 18th century and all of the majorSturm und Drang writers used it as a subject in their writings (Waterhouse 97).Die Kindermorderin was one of the most traditional plays of theSturm und Drang. Although sharing aspects ofneoclassical plays, such as a fairly simple plot and very few changes in the setting, it breaks away from the neoclassical idea that the protagonist must be of noble descent. Instead, this play shows how the aristocracy disrupts the lives of middle class characters (Liedner xii). This play also uses a vast array of colorful language to demonstrate the variety of characters and their social statuses. Another common theme seen inDie Kindermorderin is the idea of society hindering change. Groningseck, a lieutenant, seems to be willing to look past social norms and break down walls between the classes, but a fellow officer, Hasenpoth, betrays him (Liedner xii).
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe was born in August 1749, inFrankfurt. He wrote his first important play,Götz von Berlichingen in 1773, in Shakespearean style, a defining characteristic of theSturm und Drang movement (Wilson and Goldfarb 287).Shakespeare was considered a genius among German playwrights, and was idolized for his “shattering of the dramatic unities of time, place and action; and his sharply individualized, emotionally complex characters” (Waterhouse v). Goethe was well known for his staging as well as his long dramatic poem Faust (Goethe's Faust) (Wilson and Goldfarb 287). Goethe was the director of theatre at theWeimar Theatre where he eventually ran the entire company. He went to Italy for two years to collect himself and while there discovered the beauty of the Greek and Roman ruins. After this trip he returned with interest in classical ideas and writing, and a new form of writing emerged calledWeimar Classicism.
Jakob Michael Reinhold Lenz was born inSesswegen, nowLatvia, on the January 23, 1751. He studied theology and philosophy at theUniversity of Königsberg. His first poem, Die Landplagen (“Torments of the Land”), emerged in 1769. He went on to write “Notes on the Theatre”, The New Menoza and Der Hofmeister (“The Tutor”) in 1774, Pandemonium Germanicum in 1775, and Die Soldaten (“The Soldiers”) in 1776 (Liedner xi). Lenz tookAristotle’s popular idea of plot being more important than character and reversed it, as well as reclassified the distinctions betweencomedy andtragedy. In Lenz’s works, tragedies feature characters that make decisions that cause events, and in comedies a resolute milieu pushes and pulls the character through events (Liedner xi). The Soldiers is most likely Lenz’s most distinct example ofSturm und Drang literature. It centers on an idea of degradation of civilians by soldiers, but more specifically the seduction and abuse of young women by soldiers. Illustrating an undesirable, conflicted character with no power over her situation who does whatever she can to get through her current state, The Soldiers displays a “well-observed world where one’s identity is fluid – and hopelessly entangled in the social and linguistic environment” (Liedner xi). This idea of feeling unable to change one's situation is typical of manySturm und Drang plays. Lenz's use of reserved dialogue, open form, violence, and a combination of comedy and tragedy precursors the works of contemporary authors such asFriedrich Dürrenmatt andBertolt Brecht (Waterhouse v).
Friedrich Maximilian Klinger was born inFrankfurt on February 17, 1752. He was born into a humble family and struggled financially after the death of his father. He studied law atGiessen with the financial help ofGoethe’s family. He also worked with the Abel Seyler troupe for a year and a half (Pascal 132). Although famous for hisSturm und Drang style plays, many of his earlier plays were very classical in style. Some of Klinger’s works include Die Zwillinge (1776), Die neue Arria (1776), Simsone Grisaldo (1776), and Stilpo und seine Kinder (1780). Klinger’s most famous play,Sturm und Drang (1776), is the seminal piece of literature associated with theSturm und Drang epoch. Strangely, the play is set in revolutionary America, not Germany. We see allusions toShakespeare’sRomeo and Juliet through the feuds of the households, as well asAll's Well That Ends Well in some of the character’s names (Liedner xiii). Klinger utilized a defining characteristic ofSturm und Drang when he mixed aspects ofcomedy andtragedy throughout the play, stating “ the deepest tragic emotion continually alternates with laughter and joviality" (Liedner xiii).
Friedrich Schiller was born inMarbach on November 10, 1759. He studied medicine atKarlsschule Stuttgart, a prestigious military academy founded by theDuke of Württemberg. He developed a strong relationship withGoethe, one of the most influential writers of the time (Wilson and Goldfarb 287). They were particularly interested in questions concerningaesthetics. This relationship led to an epoch known asWeimar Classicism, a style that integrates classical,romantic and Enlightenment ideals (Leidner xiv). Following Schiller's playsDie Räuber ("The Robbers") andKabale und Liebe ("Intrigue and Love"), he went on to become a major poet as well as to write famous essays and Weimar Classical drama (Leidner xiv).Die Räuber tells the story of two brothers, the younger of which is infuriated by how society favors the first-born child and he acts on his feelings without any regard to societal rules or social standing. In act five, his views on God “represent the most blasphemous attack on religion in German literature up to that time… [and] is a masterful work of social dynamics that takes deep German patterns of sensibility into account” (Leidner xiv).
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