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ThePortuguese succession crisis of 1580 (Portuguese:Crise de sucessão de 1580) emerged as a result of the disappearance of young KingSebastian I of Portugal in theBattle of Alcácer Quibir in 1578 and the death without issue of his successor and great-uncleHenry I in 1580. As Sebastian and Henry lacked immediate heirs, a dynastic crisis unfolded, marked by internal conflicts and external contenders vying for thePortuguese throne. Ultimately,Philip II of Spain succeeded Henry I as King of Portugal, uniting the Portuguese and Spanish Crowns in theIberian Union. Thispersonal union endured for 60 years, during which thePortuguese Empire faced decline and global challenges, notably theDutch–Portuguese War.

After the disastrousBattle of Alcácer Quibir in 1578, the CardinalHenry, Sebastian's grand-uncle, succeeded him as king.^[1][a] Henry renounced his clerical offices and sought to take a bride for the continuation of the Aviz dynasty, butPope Gregory XIII, affiliated with Philip II, did not release him from his vows.^[3] In January 1580, when theCortes were assembled inAlmeirim to decide upon an heir, the Cardinal-King died and the Regency of the Kingdom was assumed by a Council of five members.^[4]

By this time the Portuguese throne was disputed by several claimants. Among them were:^[5]

• 
  Ranuccio Farnese
  Hereditary Duke of Parma
• 
  Catherine of Portugal
  Duchess of Braganza
• 
  Philip II
  King of Spain
• 
  António of Portugal
  Prior of Crato
• 
  Emmanuel Philibert
  Duke of Savoy

The descendants of the Duchess of Braganza obtained the throne in 1640 (in the person of her grandsonJohn IV of Portugal),^[6] but in 1580, she was only one of several possible heirs. The heir byprimogeniture was her nephew Ranuccio Farnese, being the son of Catherine's late older sisterMaria,^[7] followed by his siblings; then the Duchess herself and her children; and only after them, King Philip. Philip II was a foreigner (althoughhis mother was Portuguese) and descended from Manuel I by a female line;^[8] as for Anthony, although he was Manuel I's grandson in the male line, he was of illegitimate birth.^[9]

The heir by primogeniture, 11-year-old Ranuccio Farnese, Hereditary Duke of Parma and Piacenza, was the grandson ofInfante Duarte of Portugal,^[10] the only son of Manuel I whose legitimate descendants survived at that time. However, his fatherAlessandro Farnese, Duke of Parma was an ally of the Spanish king, another contender, so Ranuccio's rights were not claimed at that time.^[11] Ranuccio became reigning Duke of Parma in 1592.

Instead, Ranuccio's maternal aunt Catherine, Duchess of Braganza, asserted her claim as the daughter of Infante Duarte. Catherine was married toJoão I, Duke of Braganza (descendant in male line fromAfonso I, Duke of Braganza, an illegitimate son of KingJohn I of Portugal), who himself was grandson of the late DukeJaime of Braganza, also a legitimate heir of Portugal, being the son ofInfanta Isabella, sister of Manuel I and daughter ofInfante Ferdinand, Duke of Viseu, second son ofKing Duarte I. The duchess also had a son,Dom Teodósio de Braganza, who would be her royal heir and successor to the throne. Catherine's relatively strong claim was bolstered by her residency in Portugal. Although she was Henry's preferred successor,^[12] her bid for queenship ultimately failed due to her sex, the powerful influence of Philip II, and the unpopularity of her husband.^[7]

According to primogeniture, the line of succession of the Portuguese throne would have been:

1. Ranuccio Farnese, Hereditary Duke of Parma and his siblingsOdoardo andMargherita
2. Infanta Catherine, Duchess of Braganza and her children
3. Philip II of Spain and his children
4. Maria of Austria, Holy Roman Empress, Philip's sister, and her children
5. Emmanuel Philibert, Duke of Savoy and his children (son ofBeatrice of Portugal, Duchess of Savoy, daughter ofManuel I)

Claimants following King Henry I's death (1580)

Catherine de' Medici,Queen mother ofFrance, used a claimed descendance fromKing Afonso III of Portugal from his first marriage withMatilda, Countess of Boulogne to advance with a claim to the Portuguese Throne.^[13] Her claim was likely only presented to entice Philip to offer compensation for its withdrawal.^[14] She later aided António, providing him with a French fleet.^[15]

ThePope, at the timeGregory XIII, also had a claim to the Portuguese Throne, sinceKing Henry was aCardinal and the inheritance of all cardinals reverts to the Church.^[16] The pope claimed it was his right to have the Kingdom of Portugal, as well as a property that had belonged to the King.

Neither claim was seriously considered.^[16]

António, Prior of Crato (1531–1595) was a claimant of the Portuguese throne during the 1580 crisis and, according to some historians,^[17]King of Portugal (during a short time in 1580 in mainland Portugal, and since then until 1583, in theAzores). António was the illegitimate son ofInfante Luis (1506–1555), and therefore grandson of KingManuel I.^[8] It was precisely because of his illegitimacy that his claim to the throne was weak and considered invalid.^[18]

Philip II of Spain managed to bring the aristocracy of the kingdom as support to his side.^[19] For the aristocracy, apersonal union withSpain would prove highly profitable for Portugal at a time when the state finances were suffering.^[20] António tried to seduce the people for his cause, comparing the present situation to that of theCrisis of 1385.^[21] Then—just as in 1580—the king ofCastile had invoked blood descent to inherit the Portuguese throne; and the Master of Aviz (John I), illegitimate son of KingPeter I, asserted his right to the throne at theBattle of Aljubarrota, which ended in a victory for John's troops, and in theCortes ofCoimbra in 1385.

In June 1580,^[b] António proclaimed himselfKing of Portugal inSantarém,^[22] followed by acclamation in several locations throughout the country.^[20] His domestic government lasted until 25 August 1580, when he was defeated in theBattle of Alcântara by Habsburg armies led by theDuke of Alba.^[23] After the fall of Lisbon, he purported to rule the country fromTerceira Island, in the Azores, where he established a government in exile until 1583.^[24] Some authors consider António the last monarch of theHouse of Aviz (instead of Cardinal-King Henry) and the 18th King of Portugal. His government in Terceira island was only recognized in the Azores, whereas on the continent and in theMadeira Islands power was exercised by Philip II, who was acclaimed king in 1580 as Philip I of Portugal and recognized as official king by the Cortes ofTomar in 1581.^[25] The new king's election was carried on condition that the kingdom and its overseas territories should remain separate from Spain and keep their own laws and Cortes.^[26]

After his defeat in the Azores, António went into exile inFrance—traditional enemy of the Habsburgs—and courted the support ofEngland.^[27] An invasion was attempted in 1589 under SirFrancis Drake—leading the so-calledEnglish Armada—but ended in failure.^[28] António continued to fight until the end of his life for his rights to the throne.^[29]

The matter of whether Portugal was actually invaded by Spain is contested. Philip II had a legitimate claim to the throne, but as with many other dynastic struggles of the age, it was shrouded in controversy. In any case, the Habsburg kings maintained Portugal's status and gave excellent positions to Portuguese nobles in the SpanishCourt, and Portugal maintained an independent law, currency and government.^[30] However, Portugal saw its wealth and cultural individuality gradually decreasing.^[31]Portuguese colonies came under sustained attack from their enemies, especially the Dutch and English.^[32]

Sixty years after these events, John II, Duke of Braganza (1603–1656) accepted the throne offered by the Portuguese nobility, who had become frustrated under Habsburg rule, becomingJohn IV of Portugal.^[33] He was the grandson of Catherine, Duchess of Braganza, who had in 1580 claimed the Portuguese crown, and son ofTeodósio II,Duke of Braganza (who died insane in 1630). John was raised to the throne of Portugal (of which he was then held to be the legitimate heir) during thePortuguese Restoration War against KingPhilip IV of Spain.^[34]

There were manyimpostors who claimed to be King Sebastian,^[35] variously in 1584, 1585, 1595, and 1598. "Sebastianism", the legend that the young king would return to Portugal on a foggy day persisted for years, and was even strong into the 1800s.^[36]

• Disney, A. R. (2009).A History of Portugal and the Portuguese Empire. From Beginnings to 1807. Vol. I: Portugal. Cambridge University Press.ISBN 978-0-521-60397-3.
• Dyer, Thomas Henry (1877).Modern Europe. Vol. II. From 1521-1598 (Second ed.). London: George Bell & Sons.
• Lardner, Dionysius, ed. (1833).The History of Spain and Portugal.The Cabinet Cyclopædia. Vol. V. London: Longman, Rees, et al. pp. 207–215.
• Livermore, H.V. (1947).A History of Portugal. Cambridge University Press.
• Livermore, H.V. (1969).A New History of Portugal. Cambridge University Press.ISBN 9780521095716.
• Marques, Antonio Henrique R. de Oliveira (1976).History of Portugal. Columbia University Press.ISBN 978-0-231-08353-9.
• McMurdo, Edward (1889).The history of Portugal, from the Commencement of the Monarchy to the Reign of Alfonso III. London: Sampson Low, Marston, Searle, & Rivington. Retrieved25 October 2023.
• Stephens, H. Morse (1891).The Story of Portugal. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons. Retrieved25 October 2023.

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• Philip II of Spain

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