Astring of cash coins (Traditional Chinese:貫, 索, 緡, 繦, 鏹,^[a]吊, 串, 弔, 錢貫, 貫錢,^[b]貫文, 吊文, or 串文;French:Ligature de sapèques) refers to a historicalChinese,Japanese,Korean,Ryukyuan, andVietnamese currency unit that was used as a superunit of theChinese cash,Japanese mon,Korean mun,Ryukyuan mon, andVietnamese văn currencies. The square hole in the middle of cash coins served to allow for them to be strung together in strings. The term would later also be used on banknotes and served there as a superunit ofwén (文).^[c]

Prior to theSong dynasty strings of cash coins were calledguàn (貫),suǒ (索), ormín (緡), while during theMing andQing dynasties they were calledchuàn (串) ordiào (吊).^[1][2] In Japan and Vietnam the term貫 would continue to be used until the abolition of cash coins in those respective countries.

During the Qing dynasty a string of 1000 cash coins valued at 1tael of silver, although variants of regional standards as low as 500 cash coins per string also existed.^[3][4][5] A total of 1000 coins strung together were referred to as achuàn (串) ordiào (吊) and were accepted by traders and merchants per string because counting the individual coins would take too much time. The coins were made up of bronze to protect China's economy. Because the strings were often accepted without being checked for damaged coins and coins of inferior quality and copper alloys, these strings would eventually be accepted based on their nominal value rather than their weight; this system is comparable to that of afiat currency. Because the counting and stringing together of cash coins was such a time-consuming task, people known asqiánpù (錢鋪) would string cash coins together in strings of 100 coins, of which ten would form a singlechuàn. Theqiánpù would receive payment for their services in the form of taking a few cash coins from every string they composed. Because of this, achuàn was more likely to consist of 990 coins rather than 1000 coins, and because the profession ofqiánpù had become a universally accepted practice, thesechuàns were often still nominally valued at 1000 cash coins.^[6][7] The number of coins in a single string was locally determined, as in one district a string could consist of 980 cash coins, while in another district this could only be 965 cash coins. These numbers were based on the local salaries of theqiánpù.^[8][9][10] During the Qing dynasty theqiánpù would often search for older and rarer coins to sell these tocoin collectors at a higher price.^[11]

The number of cash coins which had to be strung together to form a string differed due to region, time period, or by the materials used in the manufacture thereof. For example, under the reign of theTự Đức Emperor of theNguyễn dynasty, one string of cash coins included 600 zinc coins,^[12] while during the later days of theFrench colonial period, a string of cash coins was 500 copper alloy coins. In Vietnam a string of cash coins had the nominal value of 1Mexican peso or 1French Indochinese piastre.^[13][14] During the late 19th century in Qing China, some currency systems were named after how many cash coins made up a string, such as theJingqian (京錢, 'metropolitan cash') orZhongqian (中錢),^[15] which was anexchange rate that was used in the capital city ofBeijing. TheJingqian system allowed a nominal debt of 2wén (文) which could be paid out using only one physical cash coin instead of two. In this system a string of Beijing cash coins (吊) required only 500 cash coins as opposed to the majority of China, which used 1000 cash coins for a string (串).^[16] Meanwhile, in theDongqian (東錢, 'Eastern cash') system, an exchange rate used for cash coins in theFengtian province, only 160 cash coins were needed to make up a string. During the Qing dynasty period, the termchuàn was used to designate long strings while the termdiào was used to design short strings.^[17]

Although the term appeared frequently on banknotes, the only cash coin to have ever had the currency unit "String of cash coins" as a part of its inscription was the Nguyễn dynasty-eraTự Đức Bảo Sao (嗣德寶鈔) 1quán cash coin (準當一貫,chuẩn đang nhất quán), which was worth 600văn (or 60mạch).^[18][19]

Much like how cash coins are counted inwén (文), until theQin dynasty, China usedcowry shells andbronze cowry shells which were denominated inbèi (貝) and a string of cowry shells was called apéng (朋). However, it is currently not known how muchbèi was in apéng.^[1]

During theQing dynasty different number of cash coins were used to make up strings of cash coins.^[20]

• 1chuàn (串) = 1000wén (文)
• 1 metropolitandiào (吊) = 1000 metropolitan cash (京錢)
• 1 metropolitandiào (吊) = 500 pieces of "standard cash coins" (制錢, before 1853)
• 1 metropolitandiào (吊) = 50 pieces of"big cash coins" (大錢, after 1861)

In actual circulation, however, cash coins throughoutChinese history were put on strings in ten groups of (supposedly) one hundred coins each; these strings were separated by a knot between each group.^[21] During the Qing dynasty period, strings of cash coins rarely actually contained 1000 cash coins and usually had something like 950 or 980 or a similar quantity; these amounts were due to local preferences rather than being random in any form.^[21] In the larger citiescash shops would make specific strings of cash coins for specific markets.^[21] The cash shops existed because at the time there were many different kinds of cash coins circulating in China, including old Chinese cash coins from previous dynasties (古錢),Korean cash coins,Japanese cash coins (倭錢),Vietnamese cash coins, large and small genuine Qing dynasty cash coins, and different kinds of counterfeits, such as illegally private-minted cash coins.^[21] Some of these strings would contain exclusively genuineZhiqian, while other strings could contain between 30% and 50% of counterfeit and underweight cash coins.^[21] The actual number of cash coins on a string and the percentage of counterfeits in a string was generally known to everyone who resided in that town by the type of knots that were used.^[21] Each of these different kind of strings of cash coins fulfilled different functions.^[21] For example, one string of cash coins was acceptable to be used in a localgrain market, while it would not be accepted at a meat market, while another type of string was able to be used in both markets but not to pay taxes.^[21] The cash shops sorted all cash coins into very specific categories, then would make up appropriate kinds of strings that were intended for use in specific markets or to pay taxes to the government.^[21]

Silk was used as a commodity worth as much as gold. Silk started out as primarily produced by theHan Dynasty. While strings of cash coin were used as currency, it wasn't very valuable, only being worth its weight in the material it was made of (bronze and sometimessilver). Silk was used to purchase many things but lost its value over time as middle eastern communities started producing their own silk and using it for trade. This over abundance of silk caused it to lose its worth. Strings of cash coins were mainly used for small purchases while silk was for larger trades.^[22]

During theSong dynasty the first series of standard governmentJiaozi notes were issued in 1024 with denominations like 1guàn (貫, or 700wén), 1mín (緡, or 1000wén), up to 10guàn. In 1039 only banknotes of 5guàn and 10guàn were issued, and in 1068 a denomination of 1guàn was introduced which became forty percent of all circulating Jiaozi banknotes.^[23] TheHuizi also continued to use these currency units. Between the years of 1161 and 1166 the government of the Song dynasty had produced 28,000,000dào (道, equal to aguàn or 1000wén) in Huizi notes. The exchange rate betweenGuanzi banknotes andcopper cash coins was 1guàn for 770wén while Huizi notes of the eighteenth production period were valued at 3guàn for 1wén.^[24][25][26] During the last days of the Southern Song dynasty, China was suffering from inflation to the point that the value of the Huizi had lowered so much that aguàn was only accepted at between 300 and 400 cash coins, which caused people to start hoarding the coins, removing them from circulation which had a devastating effect on the economy. Asthe Mongols continued marching south, the Chinese military required more money causing the government to print an excessive amount of Huizi banknotes.^[27] Theguàn currency unit would later also be used by theJurchenJin dynasty and theMongolYuan dynasty on theirJiaochao banknotes, though due tohyperinflation these currencies would not be able to be exchanged with any real cash coins and under Mongol rule non-paper forms of currency were abolished.^{[28][29][30][31]}

From the early fourteenth century to the early sixteenth century in Japan, banknotes which were known assaifu were used for transactions, payments, and the transfer of funds between remote regions. Most of thesesaifu banknotes had a value of 10kanmon (10,000 mon, or 10 strings of 1000 copper coins), these notes also circulated among the general public.^[32]

Under theMing dynasty theGreat Ming Treasure Note would also continue usingguàn as a currency unit for its denominations.^[33][34] The 1guàn Great Ming Treasure Note banknote was originally good for 1,000 copper-alloy cash coins and had a size of 36.4×22 cm, making it the largest Chinese paper banknote ever produced. In the middle of its design was an image of a string of cash coins (錢貫) to show what it was worth. At the bottom of the Great Ming Treasure Note banknote was text which explained that it was issued by theZhongshusheng (中書省, 'Palace Secretariat'), that it was a valid type of currency used concurrently with copper-alloy cash coins, and that counterfeiters would face a penalty and those who notified the authorities of counterfeiting would be highly rewarded. Despite originally circulating concurrently with cash coins, the Great Ming Treasure Note became afiat currency and would later no longer be able to be exchanged for any actual cash coins.^[35]

Privately producedbanknotes of the Qing dynasty, as is usual for China, had a great variety of names designating them across the country with names being used such asZhuangpiao (莊票),Pingtie (憑帖),Duitie (兌帖),Shangtie (上帖),Hupingtie (壺瓶帖), orQitie (期帖). The denominations used on them varied greatly with some reaching as high as 5diào (吊).^[16]

During theearly days of the Republic of China, the currency units ofchuàn wén anddiào wén were still being used on banknotes andzhuangpiao.^[36] TheHupeh Provincial Bank (湖北官錢局,Hubei Guan-Qianju), a provincial government-ownedqianzhuang created byZhang Zhidong, issued their own banknotes denominated both in taels and inchuàn (串), which were known as theHubei Guanpiao (湖北官票), until 1927.^[37]

Some Chinesebamboo tallies, which circulated in the provinces ofJiangsu,Zhejiang, andShandong from the 1870s until the 1940s,^[38][39] used "strings of cash coins" as a currency unit, but also contained additional inscriptions stating that they would not be paid out in "regular" cash coins.^[38] For example, a bamboo tally with the text "串錢壹仟文" (Chuàn qián yīqiān wén, 'a string of 1000 cash coins') could contain the additional information that it if were to be redeemed, it would be paid out inDaqian (大錢) of "10 cash" coins. This bamboo tally would then be paid out in a string of 100Daqian of 10wén.^[38]

Below their denominations many bamboo tallies had the Chinese charactersxin hao (信號, 'warranty mark') to indicate that the bamboo tally is trustworthy to be worth its stated (nominal) value.^[38]

Another way to indicate what type of cash coins would be paid out is if the bamboo tally did or did not contain the inscription 10wén (十文) below its top hole.^[38] It could then contain an inscription like "串錢貳百文" (Chuàn qián èrbǎi wén, 'a string of 200 cash coins') that would only have to be paid out in a string of 20 cash coins of 10wén rather than 200 cash coins of 1wén. The issuing authorities would do this due to the concept of "token" money that the Chinese employed at the time.^[38] As the Qing dynasty's government started manufacturing Daqian since theXianfeng period that contained high nominal values but had intrinsic values that were only slightly more valuable than the low denomination coinages, the issuer of the bamboo tally would be able to make a profit off of this situation. This was because the bamboo tally in question would be valued more than the promised redeemed value.^[38]

In general, bamboo tallies in the region were not always redeemed and would continue to circulate in their local areas as a type ofalternative currency as long as the local populace would maintain their trust that the bamboo token had value or worth. This situation translated to the profits of issuing the tally being kept by the issuing authority.^[38] And if the bamboo tally were to be redeemed, the redeemer would receive a weight ofbronze orbrass much lower than the bamboo tally's nominal value.^[38]

Thekan (Japanese貫, alternativelykamme貫目) as aJapanese unit of measurement is a bead weight forcultured pearls.Kan equals one thousandmonme or 3.75kg. The modernkan was officially established in the Japanese Law of Weights & Measures of 1891. It is still used worldwide as a weight indicator for cultured pearls.^[40]

American bicyclistWilliam Sachtleben visited the city ofGhulja in 1892 and was preparing to cycle toBeijing; while preparing for his trip together with theRussian consul, he noted the difficulty in transporting strings of cash coins, stating:

"We thought we had sufficient money to carry us, or, rather, as much as we could carry...for the weight of the Chinese money necessary for a journey of over three thousand miles was, as the Russian consul thought, one of the greatest of our almost insurmountable obstacles. In the interior of China there is no coin except the chen or sapeks, an alloy of copper and tin, in the form of a disk, having a hole in the center by which the coins may be strung together."

Sachtleben noted how there were no money exchange banks in the Chinese interior. Of the ability to use and exchange the cash coins Sachtleben noted:

"All, however, would have to be weighed in the tinza, or small Chinese scales we carried with us, and on which were marked thefün, tchan, and liang of the monetary scale. But the value of these terms is reckoned in chen (Chinese cash coins), and changes with almost every district. This necessity for vigilance, together with the frequency of bad silver and loadedyambas, and the propensity of the Chinese to "knock down" on even the smallest purchase, tends to convert a traveler in China into a veritableShylock."

Eventually Sachtleben and the Russian consul managed to exchange the strings of cash coins forsilver coins as they were easier to carry on their trip, but noted how the money that they had to carry was much heavier than their camera equipment.^[41][42]

British explorerIsabella Bird wrote of the annoyance that strings of cash coins caused to the Chinese she witnessed in her travels stating:

"Exchanging eighteenshillings English for brass cash, the weight of them amounted to seventy-two pounds, which had to be carried by thecoolies".^[43]

During the colonial era inFrench Cochinchina,Chinese sapèques (known aslý) were exclusively used ascasino tokens by gambling houses and were not used for other purchases unless trade was being conducted with Qing China. The general conversion rate was 1000 lý = 1lạng = 7.50 French francs. Thesapèques which circulated at the time of French Cochinchina were made fromzinc and had a very distinctive square centre hole allowing for them to be strung into strings of 1000 zincsapèques or 600copper-alloysapèques. These strings were known asquán tiền (貫錢) inVietnamese and asligatures orchapalets inFrench. Each string is further subdivided into 10tiền consisting of 60sapèques; these coins were valued in their quantity rather than in weight. These coins usually featured thereign or era title of the reigning Nguyễn monarch and were extremely poorly manufactured with bad alloys, causing the strings to often break. Manysapèques broke, resulting in considerable losses for their owners due to their brittleness.Charles Lemire described the heavy nature and difficult mobility of strings ofsapèques as "a currency worthy ofLycurgus of Sparta" andnon numerantur, sed ponderantur ("they are not counted but weighed").^[44]

To the French, zinc coinage also presented a huge inconvenience since their colonisation of Cochinchina in 1859, as the exchange betweenFrench francs and zincTự Đức Thông Bảo (嗣德通寶)văn meant that a large amount of zinc coins were exchanged for the French franc. Zinc cash coins often broke during transportation as the strings that kept them together would often snap. The coins would fall to the ground and a great number of them would break into pieces. These coins were also less resistant to oxidation, causing them to corrode faster than other coinages.

"Another serious disadvantage consisted in the total absence of token coinages other than the inconvenient sapèque one of zinc: one needed an artillery van to go exchange 1,000 francs in ligatures for the one sapèques, since it had the weight of a barrel and half.... and at the market, the chicken weighed some times less than its price in currency."

Prior to 1849 brass coins had become an extreme rarity and only circulated in the provinces surrounding the capital cities of Vietnam, but underTự Đức, new regulations and (uniform) standards for copper cash coins were created to help promote their usage. Between 1868 and 1872 brass coins were only around 50% copper and 50% zinc. Due to the natural scarcity of copper in Vietnam, the country always lacked the resources to produce sufficient copper coinage for circulation.^[45]

Strings of cash coin, specifically the Wen on the strings, have many uses outside of currency. Wen has been used like a contract, locking people into a promise. It was used as a ritual item, believed to bring those who owned some good luck. These practices are also known asFeng shui. They were gifted to others at weddings, funerals, and other holidays. Wen was also used to identify one's social standing in their community, as using it for purchases was a sign that a person was flourishing and was able to provide for a family. All of these uses tend to happen primarily inChinese-American communities.^[46]

Many items have been used to store these coins and keep them kept safe. These range from basic wooden bowls to intricately designed vases. Bowls andpottery fragments have been discovered all over Asia and theMogao Caves. Coin design is also fairly loose as many coins of the same name and origin were discovered but had separate designs. In today's day and age these strings of cash coins provide us with significant historical material to study. We study the craftsmanship of these ancient coins and numismatists value their discovery.^[47]

To create the wen put on these strings a coin tree must first be made. The tree is composed of many individual molds, allowing for the mass production of wen. The coins were created using mixes of separate metals such as bronze, zinc, and silver. These metals are melted down and poured into a mold created by "mother coins". Once the mold dries and the metal hardens, the 'tree' is removed and the coins separated. They are sanded down around the edges and dispersed into the empire.^[48]

In early 20th centurySơn Tây Provinceslang, the term for a string of cash coins wasLòi.^[49] Meanwhile, in the late 19th centuryĐiêm slang spoken by the lower-class people ofSaigon, the terms wereQuè andQuẻ as an abbreviation ofQuán (貫).^[50]

• Hartill, David (2005).Cast Chinese Coins: A Historical Catalogue. Trafford.ISBN 978-1-4120-5466-9.
• Wilkinson, Endymion,Chinese History: A Manual (Revised and Enlarged).Harvard-Yenching Institute Monograph Series, 52.Harvard University Asia Center. 2000.
• Akin, Marjorie H, James C Bard, and Kevin Akin. "Asian Coins in North America." In Numismatic Archaeology of North America, 1st ed., 65–81. United Kingdom: Routledge, 2016.
• Akin, Marjorie Kleiger. "The Noncurrency Functions of Chinese Wen in America." Historical Archaeology 26, no. 2 (1992): 58–65.doi:10.1007/BF03373533
• Trombert, Eric. "The Demise of Silk on the Silk Road: Textiles as Money at Dunhuang from the Late Eighth Century to the Thirteenth Century." Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 23, no. 2 (2013): 327–47.doi:10.1017/S1356186313000229.
• Scheidel, Walter. "Coin Quality, Coin Quantity, and Coin Value in Early China and the  Roman World." American Journal of Numismatics (1989) 22 (2010): 93–118.

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