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| Soldier flies | |
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| Hermetia illucens | |
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| Odontomyia sp. | |
Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Arthropoda |
| Class: | Insecta |
| Order: | Diptera |
| Suborder: | Brachycera |
| Infraorder: | Stratiomyomorpha |
| Superfamily: | Stratiomyoidea |
| Family: | Stratiomyidae Latreille, 1802[1] |
| Subfamilies | |
Thesoldier flies (Stratiomyidae, sometimes misspelled asStratiomyiidae, from Greekστρατιώτης - soldier;μυια - fly) are a family offlies (historically placed in the now-obsolete groupOrthorrhapha). The family contains over 2,700 species in over 380 extant genera worldwide.[2][3] Larvae are found in a wide array of locations, mostly in wetlands, damp places in soil, sod, under bark, in animal excrement, and in decaying organic matter. Adults are found near larval habitats.[4] They are diverse in size and shape, though they commonly are partly or wholly metallic green, or somewhat wasplikemimics, marked with black and yellow or green and sometimes metallic. They are often rather inactive flies which typically rest with their wings placed one above the other over the abdomen.
TheStratiomyinae are a subfamily that tend to have an affinity to aquatic environments.[4]
In English, the Stratiomidi are commonly called soldier flies, in GermanWaffenfliegen ("armed flies"). In the Italian language,Duméril (1832) used the common names termstratiomidi andmosche armate in theDizionario delle Scienze Naturali (Dictionary of Natural Sciences). The name might originate from thoracic spines of adults that resemble armor or striped larvae that resemble uniformed soldiers.[5]
These flies range from very small to large, 3 to 20 mm long. They have antennae in three segments, with the terminal segment annulated. Ocelli are present; the lower orbital bristles are absent. The postvertical orbital bristles are absent, as are the vibrissae. As for the mouthparts, the proboscis is short and not piercing; the maxillary palps are mono- or bisegmented. The wings have either a small discal cell, or the discal cell is absent. No subapical cell is seen, and a closed anal cell is present. Thecosta does not extend around the entire wing. The subcosta reaches the costa independently of vein 1, or joins vein 1 close to where it joins the costa. The leading-edge veins are often markedly stronger than the rest; vein 6 is present and reaches the wing margin, whereas vein 7 is present and does not reach the wing margin. The tibiae are without spurs.[6]
Larvae may be either aquatic or terrestrial. In regards to feeding, they may besaprophagous,mycophagous, or predatory. The larvae areapodous andeucephalic and cylindrical-fusiform, depressed dorsoventrally and distinctly segmented. The size of the mature larva is variable, depending on the species, from less than 1 cm in length up to 5 cm. The head is much narrower than the thorax and partially sunken into it. The integument is strongly sclerotized with the cuticle containing inclusions of calcium carbonate with hexagonal crystals which form a characteristic microsculpture. In aquatic species, the last urite is thin and more or less elongated forming a breathing tube, which ends with a tuft of waterproofing bristles. It is used to draw air from the surface, with the larva remaining submerged.
The pupa develops inside theexuvia of the lastlarval stage, a feature common to all Stratiomyomorpha. The pupation within the larval exuvia constitutes a case of evolutionary convergence withCyclorrhapha, in which group is the formation of a true puparium.
The larvae of Stratiomyidae are characterized by a wide variety of behaviours and habitats. They are mainly scavengers, but aquatic species also feed on algae. Less frequently, they may bepredators orherbivores. The aquatic larvae are sometimes characterized by particularly specific habitat requirements. For example, several species colonize rocks covered by a thin layer of water (hygropetric); others are found in brackish water, and some in thermal springs. In general, though, Stratiomyidae larvae colonize stagnant waters or rivers near the shores, seeking the richest vegetation, algae, and debris.
Terrestrial larvae are found in organic substrates: in decomposing vegetable matter and animalexcreta, in moist soils and litter, under the bark of trees, etc.Inopus rubriceps (Macquart), the sugarcane soldier fly, is apest: the larvae attack the roots ofsugarcane in Australia.
Adults visit flowers to feed on the sugar-containing nectar, or else do not feed at all, dedicating their short lives to reproduction. Unlike otherdipterous scavengers, adults of Stratiomyidae do not have relationships with the growth substrate of the larvae, except foroviposition.
Larval development takes place with a variable number ofmoults; depending on the species, up to 10 larval stages occur. Particularly well known is the postembryonic development ofHermetia illucens, whose larvae develop through six stages.
Species of this fly may travel along with members ofPolybioides raphigastra (a wasp species) through the practice of mimicry.
The Stratiomyidae are closely related to the family ofXylomyidae, with which they share 10synapomorphies, and they form amonophyletic clade with the family ofPantophthalmidae with which they share 5 synapomorphies.[citation needed]
| Stratiomyomorpha |
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