Strategos[a] (pl. strategoi),[b] also known by itsLatinized formstrategus, is aGreek term meaning 'militarygeneral'. In theHellenistic world and in theByzantine Empire, the term also described a military governor. In the modernHellenic Army, it is the highest officer rank.
Strategos is a compound of two Greek words:stratos andagos.Stratos (στρατός) means 'army',[1] literally 'that which is spread out',[2] coming from the proto-Indo-European root *stere-, 'to spread'.[3]Agos (ἀγός)[4] means 'leader', fromagein (ἄγειν), 'to lead',[5] from the pelasgic root *ag-, 'to drive, draw out or forth, move'.[6]
In its most famous attestation, inClassical Athens, the office ofstrategos existed already in the 6th century BC, but it was only with the reforms ofCleisthenes in 501 BC that it assumed its most recognizable form: Cleisthenes instituted a board of tenstrategoi who were elected annually, one from each tribe (phyle). The ten were of equal status, and replaced thepolemarchos, who had hitherto been the senior military commander.[7] At theBattle of Marathon in 490 BC (according toHerodotus) they decided strategy by majority vote, and each held the presidency in daily rotation. At this date thepolemarchos had acasting vote, and one view among modern scholars is that he was the commander-in-chief; but from 486 onwards thepolemarchos, like the otherarchontes, was appointed by lot. The annual election of thestrategoi was held in the spring, and their term of office coincided with the ordinary Athenian year, from midsummer to midsummer. If astrategos died or was dismissed from office, a by-election might be held to replace him.
The strict adherence to the principle of astrategos from each tribe lasted untilc. 440 BC, after which twostrategoi could be selected from the same tribe and another tribe be left without its ownstrategos, perhaps because no suitable candidate might be available.[7] This system continued at least untilc. 356/7 BC, but by the timeAristotle wrote hisConstitution of the Athenians inc. 330 BC, the appointments were made without any reference to tribal affiliation. Hence, during theHellenistic period, although the number of the tribes was increased, the number ofstrategoi remained constant at ten.[7]
In the early part of the 5th century, severalstrategoi combined their military office with a political role, withThemistocles,Aristides,Cimon, orPericles among the most notable; nevertheless their power derived not from their office, but from their own personal political charisma. As political power passed to the civilianrhetores in the later 5th century, thestrategoi were limited to their military duties.[7] Originally, thestrategoi were appointedad hoc to various assignments. On campaign, several—usually up to three—strategoi might be placed jointly in command. Unlike other Greek states, where thenauarchos commanded the navy, the Athenianstrategoi held command both at sea and on land.[7] From the middle of the 4th century, thestrategoi increasingly were given specific assignments, such as thestrategos epi ten choran (στρατηγὸς ἐπὶ τὴν χώραν) for the defence ofAttica; thestrategos epi toushoplitas (στρατηγὸς ἐπὶ τοὺς ὁπλίτας), in charge of expeditions abroad; the twostrategoi epi ton Peiraia (στρατηγοὶ ἐπὶ τὸν Πειραιᾶ), responsible for the war harbour ofPiraeus; and thestrategos epi tassymmorias (στρατηγὸς ἐπὶ τὰς συμμορίας), responsible for the equipment of the warships.[7] This was generalized in Hellenistic times, when eachstrategos was given specific duties. In theRoman Imperial period, thestrategos epi ta hopla (στρατηγὸς ἐπὶ τὰ ὅπλα) became the most prominent magistrate in Athens.[7] The other generals had disappeared by the end of the first century BC.
The Athenian people kept a close eye on theirstrategoi. Like other magistrates, at the end of their term of office they were subject toeuthyna and in addition there was a vote in theekklesia during everyprytany on the question whether they were performing their duties well. If the vote went against anyone, he was deposed and as a rule tried by jury. Pericles himself in 430 was removed from office asstrategos and fined, and in 406 six of the eightstrategoi who commanded the fleet at theBattle of Arginusae were all removed from office and condemned to death.
The title ofstrategos appears for a number of other Greek states in the Classical period, but it is often unclear whether this refers to an actual office, or is used as a generic term for military commander.[7] Thestrategos as an office is attested at least forSyracuse from the late 5th century BC,Erythrae, and in thekoinon of theArcadians in the 360s BC.[7]
The title ofstrategos autokrator was also used for generals with broad powers, but the extent and nature of these powers was granted on anad hoc basis.[7] ThusPhilip II of Macedon was elected asstrategos autokrator (commander-in-chief with full powers) of theLeague of Corinth.
UnderPhilip II of Macedon, the title ofstrategos was used for commanders on detached assignments as the quasi-representatives of the king, often with a title indicating their area of responsibility, e.g.strategos tes Europes ('general of Europe').[8]
In several Greek city leagues the titlestrategos was reserved for the head of state. In theAetolian League and theAchaean League, where thestrategos was annually elected, he was theeponymous chief of civil government and the supreme military commander at the same time. Two of the most prominent leaders re-elected many times to the office in the Achaean League, wereAratus of Sicyon andPhilopoemen of Megalopolis.Strategoi are also reported in theArcadian League, in theEpirote League and in theAcarnanian League, whereas the leaders of theBoeotian League and theThessalian League had different titles,Boeotarch andTagus respectively.
In theHellenistic empires of theDiadochi, notablyLagid Egypt, for which most details are known,strategos became a gubernatorial office combining civil with military duties.[8] In Egypt, thestrategoi were originally responsible for the Greek military colonists (klerouchoi) established in the country. Quickly, they assumed a role in the administration alongside thenomarches, the governor of each of the country'snomes, and theoikonomos, in charge of fiscal affairs. Already by the time ofPtolemy II Philadelphus (r. 283–246 BC), thestrategos was the head of the provincial administration, while conversely his military role declined, as theklerouchoi were progressively demilitarized.[8]Ptolemy V Epiphanes (r. 204–181 BC) established the office ofepistrategos (ἐπιστράτηγος,lit. 'over-general') to oversee the individualstrategoi. The latter had become solely civilian officials, combining the role of thenomarches and theoikonomos, while theepistrategos retained powers of military command. In addition,hypostrategoi (sg.:hypostrategos,ὐποστράτηγος, 'under-general') could be appointed as subordinates.[8] The Ptolemaic administrative system survived into theRoman period, where theepistrategos was subdivided in three to four smaller offices, and theprocurator ad epistrategiam was placed in charge of thestrategoi. The office largely retained its Ptolemaic functions and continued to be staffed by the Greek population of the country.[8]
TheOdrysian kingdom ofThrace was also divided intostrategiai ('generalships'), each headed by astrategos, based on the variousThracian tribes and subtribes. At the time of the kingdom's annexation into theRoman Empire in 46 AD, there were 50 such districts, which were initially retained in the newRoman province, and only gradually fell out of use. It was not untilc. 136 that the last of them were abolished.
Under theRoman Republic and later through thePrincipate, Greek historians often used the termstrategos when referring to the Roman political/military office ofpraetor. Such a use can be found in theNew Testament:Acts of the Apostles 16:20 refers to the magistrates ofPhilippi asstrategoi.[9] Correspondingly,antistrategos (ἀντιστράτηγος, 'vice-general') was used to refer to the office ofpropraetor.
The term continued in use in the Greek-speakingByzantine Empire. Initially, the term was used along withstratelates and, less often,stratopedarches, to render the supreme military office ofmagister militum (the general in command of afield army), but could also be employed for the regionalduces. In the 7th century, with the creation of theTheme system, their role changed: as the field armies were resettled and became the basis for the territorial themes, their generals too assumed new responsibilities, combining their military duties with the civil governance of the theme.[10] The first themes were few and very large, and in the 8th century, the provincialstrategoi were in constant antagonism with the emperor atConstantinople, rising often in rebellion against him. In response, the themes were progressively split up and the number ofstrategoi increased, diluting their power. This process was furthered by the conquests of the 10th century, which saw the establishment of several new and smaller frontier themes: while inc. 842 theTaktikon Uspensky lists 18strategoi, theEscorial Taktikon, writtenc. 971–975, lists almost 90.[10]
Throughout the middle Byzantine period (7th–12th centuries), thestrategos of theAnatolic theme enjoyed precedence over the others and constituted one of the highest offices of the state, and one of the few from whicheunuchs were specifically barred. At the same time, the Eastern (Anatolian) themes were senior to the Western (European) ones. This distinction was especially marked in the pay of their presidingstrategoi: while those of the Eastern themes received their salary directly from the state treasury, their counterparts in the West had to raise their—markedly lower—pay from the proceeds of their provinces.[11] During the 11th century, thestrategoi were gradually confined to their military duties, their fiscal and administrative responsibilities being taken over by the civilkritai ('judges'). Senior military leadership also devolved on the hands of a new class of officers titleddoukes orkatepano, who were placed in control of regional commands combining several themes. By the 13th century, the termstrategos had reverted to the generic sense of "general", devoid of any specific technical meaning.[10]
The Byzantines also used a number of variations of the titlestrategos:strategetes (στρατηγέτης, 'army leader') was an infrequently used alternative term; the termmonostrategos (μονοστράτηγος, 'single-general') designated a general placed in command over otherstrategoi or over the forces of more than one theme; the termsstrategos autokrator,archistrategos (ἀρχιστράτηγος, 'chief-general') andprotostrategos (πρωτοστράτηγος, 'first-general') designated commanders vested with supreme authority; and the termhypostrategos (ὐποστράτηγος, 'under-general') denoted a second-in-command, effectively alieutenant general.[10]
Strategus orstratigotus was the title of certain local officials in theKingdom of Sicily and its predecessor, theDuchy of Apulia. They were governors with command of the local militia and perhaps originally also localjusticiars. Appointed by the king, they answered to the royaldīwān. DukeRoger Borsa refers to hisstratigoti in a charter of 1092. Before his rise to prominence in the 1130s,George of Antioch served asstratigotus inIato. In 1167, the chancellorStephen of Perche had thestratigotus ofMessina removed for oppressive behaviour. The office is also attesetd in theVal Demone and inSyracuse.[12]
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In the modernHellenic Army, astratigós (the spelling remainsστρατηγός) is the highest officer rank. The superior rank ofstratárchis (Field Marshal) existed under themonarchy, but has not been retained by the currentThird Hellenic Republic. Under the monarchy, the rank of fullstratigós in active service was reserved for the King and a few other members of the royal family, with very few retired career officers promoted to the rank as an honorary rank. Sincec. 1970, in accordance with NATO practice for the member nations'chiefs of defence, the rank is held in active service by the Chief of theGeneral Staff of National Defence, when he is an Army officer, and is granted to the retiring Chief of theHellenic Army General Staff.
All but one of the other Greek general officer ranks are derivations of this word:antistrátigos (Antistrategos) andypostrátigos (Hypostrategos), forLieutenant General andMajor General, respectively. ABrigadier General however is calledtaxíarchos, after atáxis (in modern usagetaxiarchía), which means brigade. The ranks ofantistrátigos andypostrátigos are also used by theHellenic Police (and theGreek Gendarmerie before), theGreek Fire Service and theCypriot National Guard, which lack the grade of fullstratigós.
 Cypriot Ground Forces[13](1964–today) |  |  | ||||||
| Αντιστράτηγος Antistrátigos | Υποστράτηγος Ypostrátigos | |||||||
 Hellenic Army[14](1975–today) |  |  |  | |||||
| Στρατηγός Stratigos | Αντιστράτηγος Antistratigos | Υποστράτηγος Ypostratigos | ||||||
| Hellenic Army (1909–1937) |  |  |  | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Στρατηγός Stratigos | Αντιστράτηγος Antistratigos | Υποστράτηγος Ypostratigos | ||||||
 Hellenic Police(1984–today) |  |  | ||||||
| Αντιστράτηγος Antistratigos | Υποστράτηγος Ypostratigos | |||||||
| Hellenic Fire Service |  |  | ||||||
| Αντιστράτηγος Antistratigos | Υποστράτηγος Ypostratigos | |||||||
