Astele (/ˈstiːli/STEE-lee) orstela (/ˈstiːlə/STEE-lə)[note 1] is a stone or wooden slab, generally taller than it is wide, erected in theancient world as amonument. The surface of the stele often has text, ornamentation, or both. These may be inscribed, carved inrelief, or painted.
Stelae were created for many reasons.[1]Grave stelae were used forfunerary or commemorative purposes. Stelae as slabs of stone would also be used as ancientGreek andRoman government notices or asboundary markers to markborders orproperty lines. Stelae were occasionally erected as memorials to battles. For example, along with other memorials, there are more than half-a-dozen steles erected on thebattlefield of Waterloo at the locations of notable actions by participants in battle.[2]
A traditional Westerngravestone (headstone, tombstone, gravestone, or marker) may technically be considered the modern equivalent of ancient stelae, though the term is very rarely applied in this way. Equally, stele-like forms in non-Western cultures may be called by other terms, and the words "stele" and "stelae" are most consistently applied inarchaeological contexts to objects from Europe, the ancient Near East and Egypt,[3] China, and sometimes Pre-Columbian America.
The funerary stele of Thraseas and Euandria,c. 365 BC
Steles have also been used to publish laws and decrees, to record a ruler's exploits and honors, to mark sacred territories or mortgaged properties, as territorial markers, as the boundary steles ofAkhenaton atAmarna,[4] or to commemorate military victories.[5] They were widely used in theancient Near East,Mesopotamia,Greece,Egypt,Somalia,Eritrea,Ethiopia, and, most likely independently, inChina and elsewhere in theFar East, and, independently, byMesoamerican civilisations, notably theOlmec[6] andMaya.[7]
The large number of stelae, including inscriptions, surviving fromancient Egypt and inCentral America constitute one of the largest and most significant sources of information on those civilisations, in particularMaya stelae. The most famous example of an inscribed stela leading to increased understanding is theRosetta Stone, which led to the breakthrough allowingEgyptian hieroglyphs to be read. An informative stele ofTiglath-Pileser III is preserved in theBritish Museum. Two steles built into the walls of a church are major documents relating to theEtruscan language.
Anobelisk is a specialized kind of stele. TheInsularhigh crosses ofIreland andGreat Britain arespecialized steles.Totem poles of North and South America that are made out of stone may also be considered a specialized type of stele.Gravestones, typically with inscribed name and often with inscribedepitaph, are among the most common types of stele seen in Western culture.
Most recently, in theMemorial to the Murdered Jews of Europe inBerlin, the architectPeter Eisenman created a field of some 2,700 blank steles.[8] The memorial is meant to be read not only as the field but also as an erasure of data that refer to memory of the Holocaust.
Egyptian hieroglyphs on an Egyptian funerary stela inManchester Museum
Egyptian steles (or Stelae, Books of Stone)[9] have been found dating as far back as theFirst Dynasty of Egypt. These vertical slabs of stone are used as tombstones, for religious usage, and to mark boundaries,[10] and are most commonly made of limestone and sandstone, or harder kinds of stone such as granite or diorite, but wood was also used in later times.[11][9]
Stele fulfilled several functions. There were votive, commemorative, and liminal or boundary stelae, but the largest group was the tomb stelae. Their picture area showed the owner of the stele, often with his family, and an inscription listed the name and titles of the deceased after a prayer to one, or several, of the gods of the dead and request for offerings. Less frequently, an autobiographical text provided additional information about the individual's life.[9]
In the mastaba tombs of the Old Kingdom (2686 - 2181 BC), stelae functioned as false doors, symbolizing passage between the present and the afterlife, which allowed the deceased to receive offerings. These were both real and represented by formulae on the false door.[9]
Liminal, or boundary, stele were used to mark size and location of fields and the country's borders. Votive stelae were exclusively erected in temples by pilgrims to pay homage to the gods or sacred animals. Commemorative stelae were placed in temples by the pharaoh, or his senior officials, detailing important events of his reign. Some of the most widely known Egyptian stelae include: the Kamose Stelae, recounting the defeat of theHyksos; theVictory Stele, describing the campaigns of the Nubian pharaoh Piye as he reconquered the country; theRestoration Stela of Tutankhamun (1336 - 1327 BC), detailing the religious reforms enacted after the Amarna period; and theMerneptah Stele, which features the first known historical mention of theIsraelites. In Ptolemaic times (332 - 30 BC), decrees issued by the pharaoh and the priesthood were inscribed on stelae in hieroglyphs, demotic script and Greek, the most famous example of which is theRosetta Stone.[11][9]
Urartian steles were freestanding stone obelisks that served a variety of purposes, erected in theIron Age kingdom which existed in theArmenian Highlands of modernArmenia,Turkey andIran between the 9th and 6th centuries BC. Some were located within temple complexes, set within monumental rock-cut niches (such as the niche of the Rock ofVan, discovered byMarr andOrbeli in 1916[12]), or erected beside tombs. Others stood in isolated positions, such as theKelashin Stele, and had a commemorative function or served as boundary markers. Although sometimes plain, most bore a cuneiform inscription that would detail the stele's function or the reasons for its erection. The stele from Van's "western niche" contained annals of the reign ofSarduri II, with events detailed yearly and with each year separated by the phrase "For the GodHaldi I accomplished these deeds".[12] Urartian steles are sometimes found reused as ChristianArmenian gravestones or asspolia inArmenian churches -Maranci suggests this reuse was a deliberate desire to capitalize on the potency of the past.[13] Some scholars have suggested Urartian steles may have influenced the development of the Armeniankhachkar.[14]
Greek funerary markers, especially in Attica, had a long and evolutionary history in Athens. From public and extravagant processional funerals to different types of pottery used to store ashes after cremation, visibility has always been a large part of Ancient Greek funerary markers in Athens. Regarding stelai (Greek plural of stele), in the period of the Archaic style in Ancient Athens (600 BC) stele often showed certain archetypes of figures, such as the male athlete.[15] Generally their figures were singular, though there are instances of two or more figures from this time period.[16] Moving into the 6th and 5th centuries BC, Greek stelai declined and then rose in popularity again in Athens and evolved to show scenes with multiple figures, often of a family unit or a household scene. One such notable example is the Stele of Hegeso. Typically grave stelai are made of marble and carved in relief, and like most Ancient Greek sculpture they were vibrantly painted.[17] For more examples of stelai, the Getty Museum's published Catalog of Greek Funerary Sculpture is a valuable resource[18]
Steles (Chinese:bēi碑) have been a major medium of stone inscription in China, the earliest examples dating from theQin dynasty.[19] Chinese steles are generally rectangular stone tablets upon whichChinese characters are carvedintaglio with a funerary, commemorative, or edifying text. They can commemorate talented writers and officials, inscribe poems, portraits, or maps, and frequently contain thecalligraphy of famous historical figures.[20] In addition to their commemorative value, many Chinese steles are regarded as exemplars of traditional Chinese calligraphic scripts, especially theclerical script.[21]
Chinese steles from before theTang dynasty are rare: there are a handful from before theQin dynasty, roughly a dozen from theWestern Han, 160 from theEastern Han, and several hundred from theWei,Jin,Northern and Southern, andSuidynasties.[20] During the Han dynasty, tomb inscriptions (墓誌,mùzhì) containing biographical information on deceased people began to be written on stone tablets rather than wooden ones.[20]
Erecting steles at tombs or temples eventually became a widespread social and religious phenomenon. Emperors found it necessary to promulgate laws, regulating the use of funerary steles by the population. TheMing dynasty laws, instituted in the 14th century by its founder theHongwu Emperor, listed a number of stele types available as status symbols to various ranks of thenobility and officialdom: the top noblemen and mandarins were eligible for steles installed on top of astone tortoise and crowned withhornless dragons, while the lower-level officials had to be satisfied with steles with plain rounded tops, standing on simple rectangular pedestals.[22]
Steles are found at nearly every significant mountain and historical site in China. TheFirst Emperor made five tours of his domain in the 3rd century BC and hadLi Si make seven stone inscriptions commemorating and praising his work, of which fragments of two survive.[20] One of the most famous mountain steles is the 13 m (43 ft) high stele atMount Tai with the personal calligraphy ofEmperor Xuanzong of Tang commemorating his imperial sacrifices there in 725.[20]
A number of such stone monuments have preserved the origin and history of China's minority religious communities. The 8th-century Christians ofXi'an left behind theXi'an Stele, which survived adverse events of the later history by being buried underground for several centuries. Steles created by theKaifeng Jews in 1489, 1512, and 1663, have survived the repeated flooding of theYellow River that destroyed their synagogue several times, to tell us something about their world.Chinese Muslims have a number of steles of considerable antiquity as well, often containing both Chinese and Arabic text.
Thousands of steles, surplus to the original requirements, and no longer associated with the person they were erected for or to, have been assembled in Xi'an'sStele Forest Museum, which is a popular tourist attraction. Elsewhere, many unwanted steles can also be found in selected places in Beijing, such as Dong Yue Miao, the Five Pagoda Temple, and the Bell Tower, again assembled to attract tourists and also as a means of solving the problem faced by local authorities of what to do with them. The long, wordy, and detailed inscriptions on these steles are almost impossible to read for most are lightly engraved on white marble in characters only an inch or so in size, thus being difficult to see since the slabs are often 3m or more tall.
There are more than 100,000 surviving stone inscriptions in China. However, only approximately 30,000 have been transcribed or had rubbings made, and fewer than those 30,000 have been formally studied.[20]
Maya stelae were fashioned by theMaya civilization of ancientMesoamerica. They consist of tall sculpted stone shafts or slabs and are often associated with low circular stones referred to as altars, although their actual function is uncertain.[24] Many stelae were sculpted in low relief,[25] although plain monuments are found throughout the Maya region.[26] The sculpting of these monuments spread throughout the Maya area during theClassic Period (250–900 AD),[24] and these pairings of sculpted stelae and circular altars are considered a hallmark of Classic Maya civilization.[27] The earliest dated stela to have been foundin situ in the Maya lowlands was recovered from the great city ofTikal inGuatemala. During the Classic Period almost every Maya kingdom in the southern lowlands raised stelae in its ceremonial centre.[26]
Stelae became closely associated with the concept ofdivine kingship and declined at the same time as this institution. The production of stelae by theMaya had its origin around 400 BC and continued through to the end of the Classic Period, around 900, although some monuments were reused in thePostclassic (c. 900–1521). The major city ofCalakmul inMexico raised the greatest number of stelae known from anyMaya city, at least 166, although they are very poorly preserved.
Hundreds of stelae have been recorded in the Maya region,[28] displaying a wide stylistic variation.[26] Many are upright slabs oflimestone sculpted on one or more faces,[26] with available surfaces sculpted with figures carved in relief and withhieroglyphic text. Stelae in a few sites display a much more three-dimensional appearance where locally available stone permits, such as atCopán andToniná.[26] Plain stelae do not appear to have been painted nor overlaid withstucco decoration,[29] but most Maya stelae were probably brightly painted in red, yellow, black, blue and other colours.[30]
The Sambor Inscription, written inOld Khmer. It contains the oldest, firmly dated use of "0" as a decimal figure, seen in the date "605 Saka era" (683 AD) at the beginning of the text. Found inKratié province,Cambodia
Khmer inscriptions are a corpus of post-5th century historical texts engraved sometimes on steles, but more generally on materials such as stone and metal ware found in a wide range of mainlandSoutheast Asia (Cambodia,Vietnam,Thailand andLaos) and relating to the Khmer civilization. The study of Khmer inscriptions is known as Khmerepigraphy.
Khmer inscriptions are the only local written sources for the study of ancient Khmer civilization.
More than 1,200 Khmer inscriptions of varying length have been collected. There was an 'explosion' of Khmer epigraphy from the seventh century, with the earliest recorded Khmer stone inscription dating from 612 AD atAngkor Borei.
Ogham stones are vertical grave and boundary markers, erected at hundreds of sites in Ireland throughout the first millennium AD, bearing inscriptions in thePrimitive Irish language. They have occasionally been described as "steles."[31][32][33]
TheHorn of Africa contains many stelae. In the highlands ofEthiopia andEritrea, theAxumites andD'mt before them erected a number of large stelae, which served a religious purpose in pre-Christian times. One of these granite columns is the largest such structure in the world, standing at 90 feet.[34]
Additionally,Tiya is one of nine megalithic pillar sites in the central Gurage Zone of Ethiopia. As of 1997, 118 stele were reported in the area. Along with those in the Hadiya Zone,[35] other Sidamo and Konso stele have been theorized by historians to be ofAksumite origin or related through a common regional culture.
The stelae at Tiya and other areas in central Ethiopia are similar to those on the route betweenDjibouti City and Loyada inDjibouti. In the latter area, there are a number of anthropomorphic and phallic stelae, which are associated with graves of rectangular shape flanked by vertical slabs. The Djibouti-Loyada stelae are of uncertain age, and some of them are adorned with a T-shaped symbol.[36]
Near the ancient northwestern town ofAmud inSomalia, whenever an old site had the prefixAw in its name (such as the ruins ofAwbare andAwbube[37]), it denoted the final resting place of a local saint.[38] Surveys by A.T. Curle in 1934 on several of these important ruined cities recovered variousartefacts, such aspottery andcoins, which point to a medieval period of activity at the tail end of the Adal Sultanate's reign.[37] Among these settlements, Aw Barkhadle is surrounded by a number of ancient stelae.[39] Burial sites nearBurao likewise feature old stelae.[40]
Tsatsyn Denjdeerstone, near the Tamir River, Arkhangai Province, Mongolia
The Sambor Inscription, containing the oldest, firmly dated use of "0" as a decimal figure. The date "605 Saka era" (683 AD) is written inKhmer numerals, referring to the year it was made. Kratié province, Cambodia
^Reich, Ronny; Katzenstein, Hannah (1992). "Glossary of Archaeological Terms". In Kempinski, Aharon; Reich, Ronny (eds.).The Architecture of Ancient Israel. Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society. p. 312.ISBN978-965-221-013-5.Stele: Upright slab of stone, worked or unworked, erected for memorial or cuitic purposes. Sometimes inscribed or decorated.
^Memoirs By Egypt Exploration Society Archaeological Survey of Egypt 1908, p. 19
^e.g., Piye's victory stela (M. Lichtheim,Ancient Egyptian Literature Vol 3, TheUniversity of California Press 1980, pp. 66ff) or Shalmaneser's stela at Saluria (Boardman,op. cit., p. 335)
Fuente, Beatriz de la; Leticia Staines Cicero; Alfonso Arellano Hernández (1999). "Art: Sentries of Eternity". In A. Arellano Hernández; et al. (eds.).The Mayas of the Classic Period. Mexico City, Mexico: Consejo Nacional para la Cultura y las Artes (CONACULTA). pp. 141–226.ISBN970-18-3005-9.OCLC42213077.
_with_old_Kannada_inscription_at_the_Tarakeshvara_temple_at_Hangal.jpg)
.svg)
